Table Of Content641740
research-article2016 HOL0010.1177/0959683616641740The HoloceneStobbe et al.
Research paper
The Holocene
Bronze Age human–landscape interactions 1 –19
© The Author(s) 2016
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DOI: 10.1177/0959683616641740
Russia – Evidence from high-resolution hol.sagepub.com
palaeobotanical studies
Astrid Stobbe,1 Maren Gumnior,1 Lisa Rühl1 and Heike Schneider2
Abstract
The Transural steppe is a cultural contact zone between areas east and west of the Ural Mountains. Mobile pastoralism is the traditional way of life in the
steppe, while sedentary cultures constitute an exception, probably as a result of climatic variations. A change of lifestyle together with other innovations
is documented at the turn of the 3rd to the 2nd millennia BC and often believed to have been accompanied by a shift to agro-pastoralism. To examine
the ecology and economy in the Bronze Age steppe, we employed a combination of methods. As proxy-data, plant macro-remains from archaeological
excavations of Sintashta fortified settlements and pollen from off-site archives were used for a high-resolution palaeoenvironmental reconstruction.
Statistical comparisons of past and present pollen spectra show no significant differences in vegetation distribution. This allowed us to map the recent
vegetation units by multispectral satellite imagery and to use them for modelling. Models further incorporate steppe productivity, carrying capacity and
population figures to estimate herd sizes. Even if the climate was suitable for agriculture, evidence is missing from all botanical records. The economic
mainstay was animal husbandry. Models consider autonomous activity zones of at least 4 km radius surrounding each Sintashta settlement where grazing
resources could easily sustain the estimated population and their livestock. The river is seen as the determining factor to settle in this region as it provided
constant access to water and valuable natural grazing areas. During dry years and winter, the productive meadow steppes functioned as reserve pastures.
Keywords
Bronze Age, Eurasian steppe, livestock modelling, palaeoenvironment, plant macro-remains, pollen, Sintashta, subsistence strategies, vegetation mapping
Received 16 November 2015; revised manuscript accepted 18 February 2016
Introduction
As a matter of principle, cereal cultivation is possible in the Eur- predestined to be a zone of cultural contact, connecting areas east
asian steppes, but periodical droughts regularly lead to poor har- and west of the Ural Mountains. Accordingly, many hypotheses
vest or even crop failure which was experienced since the virgin on the genesis of various cultures assume migrations to and from
lands campaign. The establishment of agricultural practices in the this area (see discussions in Bochkarev, 2010; Chernykh, 2008;
past was therefore not only a question of crop availability but Epimakhov, 2010a, 2010b; Koryakova and Epimakhov, 2007;
required a profound knowledge of climate patterns and the steppe Mei, 2003), often with the attempt to correlate linguistics and
environment, especially on a localized scale, as well as a general archaeology (see Anthony, 2013 and references therein). After the
willingness to take risks on behalf of the steppe dwellers. In the occupation of the forest steppe by local Eneolithic foraging–hunt-
Transural steppe, a shift to a more sedentary lifestyle can be ing–fishing groups and the sporadic occurrence of burials by
observed in the Bronze Age (Sintashta (-Petrovka) period 2100– Yamnaya cattle breeding people (3400–2300 cal. BC (1σ); Epi-
1950 cal. BC (1σ)). Against this background, agro-pastoralism makhov, 2010b; Epimakhov and Mosin, 2015) in the southern
has often been controversially discussed as one of the subsistence Urals, there is a chronological gap concerning archaeological
strategies among Bronze Age societies in the Central Eurasian finds. At the turn of the 3rd to the 2nd millennia BC (2100–1950
steppe (e.g. Boroffka and Mantu-Lazarovici, 2011; Epimakhov, cal. BC (1σ)), the Sintashta culture with fortified settlements,
2010a, 2010b; Hanks and Doonan, 2009; Koryakova and Epi- organized residential areas with rows of buildings, innovations in
makhov, 2007; Ryabogina and Ivanov, 2011; Zdanovich and Zda- metallurgical and craft technologies such as spoke-wheeled chari-
novich, 2002). Recent studies documented cultivation of ots, as well as new burial rites appear in the Transural peneplain
free-threshing wheat (Triticum sp.), barley (Hordeum vulgare),
broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) and legumes in south-
eastern Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan in the 3rd and 2nd millen- 1Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
2Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Germany
nia BC (Frachetti et al., 2010; Spengler et al., 2014a, 2014b). A
comprehensive overview of the spread of agriculture via the Inner
Corresponding author:
Asian Mountain Corridor is given in Spengler (2015).
Astrid Stobbe, Goethe University, Norbert-Wollheim-Platz 1, Frankfurt
The Transural, situated at the periphery of the Eurasian steppe
am Main 60629, Germany.
belt at the northern fringe of Central Asia (see Figure 1a and b), is Email: [email protected]
Downloaded from hol.sagepub.com at Universitaetsbibliothek on April 27, 2016
2 The Holocene
Figure 1. (a) Map of Eurasia. Square indicates southern Transural region (image source: http://www.naturalearthdata.com); (b) distribution
map of fortified Sintashta settlements: 1 – Stepnoye; 2 – Chernorechye III; 3 – Parizh (Astafyevskoye); 4 – Bakhta; 5 – Ustye; 6 – Chekatay; 7
– Rodniki; 8 – Isiney; 9 – Kuysak; 10 – Sarym-Sakly; 11 – Konoplyanka; 12 – Zhurumbay; 13 – Kamennyi Ambar (Olgino); 14 – Kizilskoye; 15 –
Arkaim; 16 – Kamysty; 17 – Sintashta; 18 – Sintashta II (Levoberezhnoe); 19 – Andreevskoye; 20 – Alandskoye; 21 – Bersuat. Oval shows location
of the Karagaily-Ayat micro-region (mapped by Knoll, 2014); and (c) combined illustration of an aerial photo and geomagnetic results of the
Kamennyi Ambar settlement (Krause and Koryakova, 2013).
(Epimakhov and Krause, 2013). In terms of food supply, cattle 2003). So far, systematic archaeobotanical studies have only been
bones dominate the osteological material, and one might expect carried out in neighbouring ecological regions, such as the forest
that cereal cultivation was introduced as yet another response to steppe (Blyakharchuk, 2003; Krivonogov et al., 2012; Zakh et al.,
climate change. As the general climatic patterns of the Bronze 2010), mountainous regions (Khomutova, 1995; Maslennikova
Age have been controversially discussed in the past, the adapta- et al., 2012) or the low hills of Kazakhstan (Kremenetski, 1997;
tion of a sedentary lifestyle may either have been triggered by Kremenetski et al., 1997), or have been restricted to cultural lay-
more humid conditions (Gayduchenko, 2002; Lavrushin and ers (Lapteva and Korona, 2013; Prikhod’ko et al., 2013; Ryabo-
Spiridonova, 1999) or by increased aridity, since the latter gina and Ivanov, 2011; Zakh et al., 2008), exacerbating a
required animal stabling during winter (Anthony, 2009). With parallelization of results. Natural archives in the steppe that have
pedological findings suggesting a humid climate, it was long remained undisturbed over longer periods of time have only been
assumed that vegetation belts were shifted southwards during the found in Mokhovoe, about 250 km east and 100 km north of the
Bronze Age, implying the dominance of forests in the study area. study area (Kremenetski et al., 1997), but the temporal resolution
On the other hand, some palynological investigations indicate a between 5000 and 1000 BC is too low to allow any detailed state-
dry climate and a decline in woody vegetation (Kremenetski, ments for the Bronze Age. The chronology, vegetation history and
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Stobbe et al. 3
human–landscape interactions are still deficient for the southern situ loess. The dominant soils in the micro-region are luvic (decal-
Transurals owing to a lack of suitable archives and a low quantity cified) Chernozems, partly with protovertic, gypsic or sodic prop-
of 14C-dates (for an overview of previous studies, see Stobbe erties due to the nature of the sediments or the recent salinization
et al., 2015). of top soils (Chernyanskiy, 1999; Plekhanova et al., 2007; Thie-
Within the scope of the Russian–German joint research project meyer and Peters, 2016). In the floodplain of the Karagaily-Ayat,
‘Environment, Culture and Society of the Southern Urals in the species-rich meadow steppes with Geranium, Limonium, Thalic-
Bronze Age: A Multidisciplinary Investigation in the Karagaily- trum and other herbs have formed. These productive meadows
Ayat Microregion, Russia’, multidisciplinary investigations have serve as favourable grazing sites, especially in dry years (Stobbe,
been carried out in the study area since 2008 (for an overview, see 2013). The Karagaily-Ayat River is perennial; its valley contains
Krause and Korjakova, 2014; Krause and Koryakova, 2013; numerous abandoned river channels. Some of these depressions
Krause et al., 2010). They focus not only on the reconstruction of are open and filled with water while others have silted up com-
settlement structures but also on the environmental conditions pletely; nevertheless, they all react sensitively to variations in cli-
and dynamics. mate. The small lakes are also used for watering animals, and their
The aim of this paper is to thoroughly examine the interactions vegetation is especially affected by grazing (Wittig et al., 2013).
between climatic change, human activities and economies in the
Transurals by combining palynological, sedimentological and
Archaeological context
plant macro-remains analyses together with radiocarbon dating.
Cultural layers from archaeological excavations formed the basis Owing to aerial archaeology, survey and excavations, 21 fortified
to explore plant use among the inhabitants. Natural archives were settlements are known in the Transural region (Batanina et al.,
used for a high-resolution palaeoenvironmental reconstruction, 2014; Fornasier, 2014). Along a 20-km segment of the Karagaily-
after pollen data had also undergone principal component analy- Ayat River, the Konoplyanka, Zhurumbay and Kamennyi Ambar
ses (PCAs) and stratigraphically constrained cluster analyses sites are located relatively close to each other in contrast to the
(CONISS). Vegetation mapping with the help of multispectral average distance of about 23 km between Sintashta sites (Knoll,
satellite data in combination with pollen assemblages of surface 2014). This micro-region has been under archaeological focus
samples was used to reconstruct past vegetation distribution, esti- since 2005 (Hanks and Doonan, 2009; Krause and Korjakova,
mate steppe productivity and create a model for livestock man- 2014; Krause and Koryakova, 2013; Krause et al., 2010). Geo-
agement during the Bronze Age. physical investigations in several settlements and archaeological
excavations at Konoplyanka and Kamennyi Ambar assisted in the
reconstruction of outlines and internal structures (Fornasier,
Study area 2014; Knoll, 2014; Koryakova et al., 2013).
At Konoplyanka, 21 buildings were counted and at least 41
The area of investigation extends from 50° to 54°N and 59° to
were identified at Zhurumbay. The settlement area at Kamennyi
62°E on the Transural peneplain, located east of the southern Ural
Ambar (Figure 1c) with approximately 41–42 buildings in its ini-
Mountains and gently dipping towards the western Siberian low-
tial phase was later reduced to 25–26 house units. Household
lands, about 200 km to the east (Figure 1a and b). The undulating
sizes were estimated to be 8–10 or 6–10 persons, respectively
plain reaches altitudes between 200 and 300 m a.s.l., and the dom-
(Knoll, 2014; Krause, 2013). The above-ground and slightly
inant rock outcrops are of Mesozoic–Tertiary origin (Chernyans-
deepened buildings were made of wood and clay with some inter-
kiy, 1999). The regional basement rocks comprise gneisses,
nal subdivisions and structures like ovens, small pits, and particu-
granites, schists and serpentinites (Görz et al., 2004). Being part
larly remarkable well features with excellent wet preservation of
of the Ural–Tobol watershed, the peneplain is dissected by broad
organics. The stratigraphy attests successive occupations, a con-
valleys incised under periglacial conditions during the Pleisto-
clusion that is further supported by the existence of up to 15 wells
cene (Kulikov, 2005). A continental climate prevails, with a mean
within 1 house unit. Radiocarbon dates enabled the division into a
annual temperature of 3.7°C, ranging between −18°C in January
Sintashta (-Petrovka) period between 2100 and 1950 cal. BC (1σ)
and +20.6°C in July, and a mean annual precipitation of 300–
and – after a gap – a late Bronze Age Srubnaya-Alakul period
400 mm. Chernozems are the dominant soil type, but as a result of
from 1890 to 1650 cal. BC (1σ) at the site (Epimakhov and
secondary salinization, solonetz also occur (Chernyanskiy, 1999;
Krause, 2013). The Srubnaya-Alakul buildings differ in construc-
Plekhanova et al., 2007).
tion and do not follow the course of the earlier fortified Sintashta
The study area lies in the steppe zone and its natural vegeta-
structures. Kosarev (1991) assumes household sizes of five per-
tion is a herbaceous feather-grass and fescue/feather-grass steppe
sons for the late Bronze Age period. The people of the subsequent
with small groves of birch (‘kolki’) and pine (‘bory’). These are
final Bronze Age period are supposed to have been more mobile
restricted to places with better water supply and presently cover
with a reduced percentage of cattle in favour of more sheep and
about 10% of the surroundings of the Karagaily-Ayat valley. The
horses in the herd and a change in burial customs (Epimakhov,
unforested areas are subject to extensive pasturing of cattle and
2010b; Koryakova and Epimakhov, 2007).
horses, with feather-grass steppe only persisting in places with
Kurgans (earthen burial mounds), associated with the Kamen-
minor grazing pressure. During the ‘virgin lands campaign’
nyi Ambar settlement are situated on the opposite river bank
between the 1950s and 1970s, the area was transformed into
about 1 km to the south (Epimakhov, 2005).
farmland, which was ploughed and subjected to fertilizer and pes-
ticide application. Around 50–55% of those fields are still used
for cereal production nowadays.
Materials and methods
Sampling and dating
The micro-region of the Karagaily-Ayat River valley. The valley of
the Karagaily-Ayat is several kilometres wide, but in the area Results presented here are mainly based on the cores from the
around Kamennyi Ambar, the river cuts only 20–40 m into the Lake FS (220 cm), the silted Lake PW (290 cm), both in ca. 1 km
Transural peneplain. The floodplain of the Karagaily-Ayat is sub- distance from Kamennyi Ambar (see Stobbe et al., 2015 for map
divided into a lower and a higher part and bordered by one to two and details), and Lake Weihe (290 cm) (Krause et al., 2010; Sto-
Pleistocene terraces. Together with the surrounding periglacial bbe and Kalis, 2012) which is located 1.9 km from the Zhurumbay
cover beds, these deposits contain a mixture of weathered sapro- settlement. Today, Lake FS is 40 m × 30 m in size. Adjoining the
lite, alluvial and colluvial loams and, to a lesser extent, some in outer margin of the open water are a floating community of
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4 The Holocene
Table 1. Radiocarbon dates from off-site archives in the Karagaily-Ayat micro-region. OxCal v4.2.4; IntCal13 atmospheric curve
(Reimer et al., 2013).
Laboratory code Sample 14C age (uncal. BP) ±1σ δ13C Calibrated age range
1σ (68.2%) 2σ (95.4%)
COL1268.1.1 PW 180–182 3117 50 n.a. 1438–1301 cal. BC 1498–1262 cal. BC
MA-MS 102674 PW 188 3222 28 −27.1 1511–1448 cal. BC 1603–1428 cal. BC
COL1269.1.1 PW 200–202 3429 34 −29.0 1861–1684 cal. BC 1877–1640 cal. BC
COL1270.1.1 PW 216–218 3750 37 −24.5 2267–2051 cal. BC 2286–2036 cal. BC
MA-MS 16878 PW 242–245 3871 22 −27.6 2451–2295 cal. BC 2463–2286 cal. BC
Beta-250371 PW 265 7660 50 −27.8 6566–6455 cal. BC 6599–6433 cal. BC
Beta-250370 PW 290 7810 50 −26.0 6693–3591 cal. BC 6801–6501 cal. BC
MA-MS 103670 FS 29–31 339 33 −22.0 cal. AD 1490–1632 cal. AD 1470–1641
COL1266.1.1 FS 40.5–42 386 36 −24.8 cal. AD 1448–1617 cal. AD 1440–1634
COL1267.1.1 FS 54–56 2793 35 −26.6 996–906 cal. BC 1022–841 cal. BC
MA-MS 103671 FS 69–71 3479 38 −19.2 1878–1749 cal. BC 1896–1692 cal. BC
Beta-319452 FS 81–86 4980 30 −29.8 3780–3711 cal. BC 3913–3663 cal. BC
COL1264.1.1 FS 97–100 6626 38 −25.3 5616–5533 cal. BC 5625–5491 cal. BC
COL1265.1.1 FS 112–114 6705 39 −26.5 5660–5568 cal. BC 5707–5555 cal. BC
COL1083.1.1 FS 130–132 7040 34 −19.3 5982–5899 cal. BC 5998–5846 cal. BC
MA-MS 10883 FS 156–159 7974 36 −39.3 7030–6826 cal. BC 7047–6708 cal. BC
MA-MS 10884 FS 206–209 8186 36 −34.9 7289–7083 cal. BC 7312–7076 cal. BC
COL1271.1.1 Weihe 30–32 240 35 −27.1 cal. AD 1637–… cal. AD 1522–…
MA-MS 103669 Weihe 87 1578 35 −24.2 cal. AD 427–536 cal. AD 405–556
MA-MS 103667 Weihe 127 1705 37 −27.4 cal. AD 260–391 cal. AD 247–408
MA-MS 10880 Weihe 151 1989 26 −22.7 36 cal. BC–cal. AD 51 44 cal. BC–cal. AD 66
MA-MS 10881 Weihe 207 2241 26 −22.7 377–232 cal. BC 390–206 cal. BC
MA-MS 11513 Weihe 246 2194 21 n.a. 354–203 cal. BC 360–196 cal. BC
MA-MS 103668 Weihe 273 2483 53 −25.6 764–541 cal. BC 782–429 cal. BC
Stratiotetum aloides, a reed bed of Schoenoplecto-Phragmitetum, (Beug, 2004; Fægri and Iversen, 1989; Moore et al., 1991; Punt
a large sedge community (Caricetum elatae) and finally a belt of and Clarke, 1976–2003; Reille, 1992, 1998). The pollen types
floodplain meadow. Lake PW comprises a 15-m-wide, circular were divided into local (occurring in the immediate vicinity of
depression. It is nowadays completely dry, covered with Lycopus lakes or rivers) and regional species (unrelated to wetlands). The
europaeus and enclosed by a belt of floodplain meadow. The calculation of pollen and microfossil percentages was based on
study site Lake Weihe, ca. 80 m × 40 m in size, has already silted the regional pollen sum between 300 and 1100 grains including
up to a great extent in the eastern part. It has an almost 100% trees, shrubs and herbs. Poaceae pollen were included in the basic
coverage with Carex elata, whereas in the northwest a small float- pollen sum, but Cyperaceae were excluded. The resulting per-
ing community of Stratiotetum aloides exists on the open water centage pollen diagrams were created with the software packages
surface, bordered by a reed bed of Schoenoplecto-Phragmitetum. Tilia/Tilia-Graph and TGView 1.7.16 (Grimm, 1993, 2004).
The study material was retrieved with an open core drill (6-cm Since this paper focuses on regional landscape changes, pollen
diameter) in overlapping segments. assemblage zones (PAZ) were defined according to differences in
In total, 24 samples of terrestrial plant material (seeds and the regional pollen composition. Only regional pollen diagrams
fruits) taken from the sediment cores were radiocarbon-dated by are presented in this study (for local pollen diagrams, see Stobbe
acceleration mass spectrometry (AMS) at the laboratories of the et al., 2015). The pollen zonation is based on visual estimation
University of Cologne (Centre for Accelerator Mass Spectrome- and statistical analyses performed with CONISS (Grimm, 1987).
try), Beta-Analytic (London/Miami) and the Curt-Engelholm- Surface samples from nine natural wet coring sites in the Kar-
Zentrum, Archaeometry (Mannheim/Tübingen). The 14C-results agaily-Ayat micro-region are considered.
(Table 1) were calibrated with OxCal 4.2.4 (Bronk Ramsey, 2009;
Reimer et al., 2013).
PCA
The calibrated dates were used to model age–depth relation-
ships together with sedimentological and palynological informa- For statistical comparisons, a variety of multivariate tests were
tion, allowing the interpolation of deposition rates and hiatuses run, of which PCAs based on species abundances provided maxi-
(also see Stobbe et al., 2015). mum information on the characteristics of pollen assemblages.
They were carried out with R software (R Core Team, 2013) and
the enlargement package Vegan (Oksanen et al., 2013), followed
Pollen analysis
by chord transformations after Orloci (1967) and Legendre and
Sediment samples of 0.3 cm3 from the lakes FS, PW and Weihe Gallagher (2001), because of prevalent nil values. In order to sup-
were taken for pollen analysis and preprocessed following a stan- port evident clusterings in the PCA ordination plots, an uncon-
dard method (Fægri and Iversen, 1989). The pollen grains were strained variant of CONISS (Grimm, 1987) was performed as
mounted in silicone oil and identified under a light microscope well, also with chord distance as proximity measure.
(magnification ×480 and ×756 for detailed structures and surface
patterns), using the departmental reference collection, which, in
Vegetation mapping
the course of this research, had been continuously supplemented
with Russian plant specimens. Furthermore, standard reference In order to map and quantify recent land cover patterns in the area
sources and identification keys were used for taxa identification of study, Landsat 7, Spot and ASTER scenes of various recording
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Stobbe et al. 5
dates (courtesy of the U.S. Geological Survey) were processed BC, but a first hiatus is noticeable as early as 4400 cal. BC at
and compared visually in Erdas Imagine 14. Apart from meadow 96 cm. It is characterized by a reduction of organic matter but no
steppes, forests (either pine or birch) and open water bodies were obvious changes in the pollen spectra, probably as a result of the
identified. The dominant regional steppe vegetation, together complete desiccation of the water body. A second hiatus between
with cultivated areas such as farms or settlements, was considered 81 and 72 cm is not reflected by any structural or geochemical
to represent the Bronze Age extent of the steppe and consequently evidence within the relatively uniform loams. By the help of
labelled as such. radiocarbon dating and a detected change in the local vegetation
Several ASTER scenes and one Landsat image recorded composition, however, it has been located at 74 cm. On top of a
between June 2000 and June 2008 were selected for further analy- third hiatus at 51 cm, loams of similar texture but with distinctly
ses in Erdas Imagine and ArcGIS 9. Unsupervised as well as higher organic values occur. Lake PW encompasses highly
supervised classifications were carried out, but results were organic lacustrine silts including intercalated peats as well as
affected by the strong overlap of birch woods and meadow steppe weakly organic fluvial sands and clays. At the bottom of the core,
in the near-infrared spectrum. However, manual masking of man- loams date back to 6800 cal. BC. They are topped by a coarse
made structures, separation of forests and grasses by textural dif- sandy channel-bed deposit between 252 and 248 cm which is
ferences, the association of meadow steppes with floodplain sites accompanied by a major hiatus, spanning around 4000 years. The
and the comparison with high-resolution imagery in Google Earth chronology with four radiocarbon dates between 248 and 185 cm
yielded a high level of accuracy in the final output maps. reveals a relatively undisturbed, uninterrupted sedimentation of
partly organogenic loams with some intercalated sands through-
out this period. A thick colluvium in the upper 150 cm marks the
Analysis of plant macro-remains
end of fluvio-lacustrine dynamics at this site.
Sediment samples for plant macro-remain analysis were collected The sediments at Lake Weihe are composed of layers of sands,
systematically from building features and cultural layers that did silts and highly organic silts and some peats in the upper half of
not appear to be disturbed by bioturbation. The sample sizes ranged the profile. The filling started at 600 cal. BC and continued until
from 0.1 to 6.5 l of displacement volume, depending on feature cal. AD 600 (Kalis and Stobbe, 2012; Krause et al., 2010). Above
size, excavation technique and soil structure. In total, 46 samples a hiatus of around 1000 years at 70 cm, minerogenic material has
with a displacement volume of 179 l were selected for this paper. been deposited during the last 400 years.
The samples were wet-sieved in the field using a test sieve
column with a smallest mesh size of 0.315 mm. Sorting and iden-
Pollen analysis
tification were done at ×6–40 magnification. Following an actual-
istic approach (Jacomet and Kreuz, 1999), the macrofossils were Lake FS. In the pollen diagram, five PAZ were recognized (FS 1
grouped according to their habitat requirements, taking into to FS 5) (Figure 3).
account the particularities of the steppe environment and modern
vegetation composition (Kulikov, 2005; Wittig et al., 2013) as PAZ FS 1: 7180–6910 cal. BC (205–162 cm). The dominant taxa
well as the results of the pollen analyses (Stobbe, 2013; Stobbe are Artemisia and Poaceae, but Chenopodiaceae also play an
et al., 2015). For identification of seeds, fruits and other plant important role. The AP (Arboreal Pollen) values reach around
parts, the departmental reference collection, which was enlarged 10%. The bordering floodplain is covered by a meadow with Fili-
throughout this research by modern comparative material of pendula, Succisa pratensis, Geranium and Sanguisorba officina-
steppe plants in the study area (Wittig et al., 2013), identification lis. Very few trees (namely, Betula and Pinus) grow in the
guides (e.g. Cappers et al., 2006) and archaeobotanical literature, surroundings. Only once spores of dung-colonizing fungi are
was used. The plant taxa were grouped into vegetation units as documented. The Cerealia pollen type appears.
follows – steppe woodland, steppe, ruderal steppe, meadow
steppe and riparian zone (Rühl et al., 2015). PAZ FS 2: 6910–5540 cal. BC (162–96 cm)
Subzone FS 2a: 6910–5740 cal. BC (162–120 cm). Betula
Results and interpretation and Pinus pollen increase, pollen grains of Picea are found regu-
larly and Tilia and Quercus appear for the first time. The ratio
Sedimentation history
between Chenopodiaceae and Poaceae changes: Poaceae reach
Figure 2 gives an overview of the lithological and chronostrati-
more than 20%, while Chenopodiaceae drop to less than 10%.
graphical characteristics of the three featured profiles, while
Artemisia still remains dominant with more than 40%. A feather-
details on related radiocarbon dates can be taken from Table 1 (for
grass steppe is established, with other herbaceous plants, such as
more data concerning sedimentological and geochemical analy-
Galium, Apiaceae and Brassicaceae, among others. Just once
ses, see Stobbe et al., 2015). All profiles show one to several hia-
spores of dung-colonizing fungi are documented. The Cerealia
tuses. They appear as (a) a reduction in organic matter and an
pollen type is present.
increase in riparian vegetation, followed by the disappearance of
aquatic plants, (b) a reduction in organic matter without obvious
Subzone FS 2b: 5740–5540 cal. BC (120–96 cm). Salix val-
changes in the local or regional pollen spectra, showing either an
ues increase significantly and broad-leaved deciduous trees like
abrupt climatic change leading to a quick desiccation of the water
Ulmus, Quercus and Alnus increase as well. Ephedra is con-
body or the subsequent erosion of sediments in the course of arid-
stantly present. In the feather-grass steppe, Chenopodiaceae and
ification, or (c) no sedimentological changes – that is, the hiatus is
Poaceae decrease. Many herbs that are known as indicators of
only identifiable by the help of radiocarbon dating and minor
disturbances such as Polygonum aviculare, Polygonum persi-
changes in the local vegetation. The presence of sediments may
caria and Rumex appear. A few spores of dung-colonizing fungi
thus be indicative of a humid environment, but it is, however, not
are documented. The Cerealia pollen type is still present. A hia-
possible to deduct the existence of arid conditions from their
tus separates this zone from PAZ FS 3.
absence because internally or externally triggered erosion always
has to be taken into account (Stobbe et al., 2015).
The sediments found at Lake FS comprise fluvio-lacustrine PAZ FS 3: 4390–3560 cal. BC (96–74 cm). Values for AP remain
silts and loams with varying contents of organic matter and some stable. Picea and Ulmus are continuously present, whereas Quer-
embedded sandy layers marking phases of increased fluvial cus and Alnus appear occasionally, and Corylus is found once.
activity. The accumulation of sediments began around 7200 cal. Artemisia percentages remain unchanged, while Chenopodiaceae
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6 The Holocene
Figure 2. Sediment profiles from coring sites Lake FS, Lake PW and Lake Weihe.
increase slightly. A larger number of herbs like Trinia glauca, PAZ FS 5: cal. AD 1520–1950 (51–30 cm). AP percentages rise
Galium, Serratula-type, Sanguisorba officinalis, Heracleum slightly because of the increase in Betula. Picea, Alnus and Ulmus
sibirica, Lotus or Scrophulariaceae points towards a steppe veg- are constantly present. Salix and Corylus are abundant. Tilia and
etation that was rich in species. Spores of dung-colonizing fungi Quercus are rare, and Ephedra vanishes. Among the NAP (Non-
are rare. A hiatus separates this zone from PAZ FS 4. Arboreal Pollen), values of Anthemis-type, Rumex and Plantago
major/media increase. Poaceae increase up to 20%. There is a
PAZ FS 4: 2280–760 cal. BC (74–51 cm). Among the regional veg- decline in Chenopodiaceae as well as in the diversity of species.
etation, AP values increase to 20%, with a slight increase of Pinus Only once spores of dung-colonizing fungi are documented. The
and a significant increase of broad-leaved deciduous trees. Ephedra Cerealia pollen type is present.
is present. Values of Artemisia are stable; Chenopodiaceae decrease
clearly at the top of the zone, whereas Poaceae rise. Herbaceous spe- Lake PW. Only the Bronze Age part of the pollen diagram is pre-
cies diversity increases once more and indicators of disturbances sented and elaborated here. It comprises four PAZ, out of which
(e.g. Polygonum aviculare, Rumex and Echinops) are present, as PW 3a corresponds to the Sintashta-Petrovka occupation and PW
well as the Cerealia pollen type. Spores of dung-colonizing fungi are 3b to the Srubnaya-Alakul occupation phase. (PW 1 to PW 4)
regularly documented. A hiatus separates this zone from PAZ FS 5. (Figure 4).
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Stobbe et al. 7
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8 The Holocene
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Stobbe et al. 9
PAZ PW 1: 2390–2290 cal. BC (248–235 cm). AP values Subzone Weih 2b: 310–210 cal. BC (233–203 cm). AP
reach about 15%. Betula is dominant, followed by Pinus and reach their highest value, with up to 38%. The pollen curves of
Picea. Broad-leaved deciduous trees occur in small amounts. the steppe indicators correspond to the values of zone 1. The
The dominant vegetation is steppe with Poaceae and Arte- ruderal steppe indicator Plantago major/media increases.
misia; Galium and Apiaceae are abundant. On saline and dis- Polygonum aviculare and the Cerealia pollen type are found in
turbed sites, Chenopodiaceae and Plantago maritima are similar amounts.
common. Ephedra occurs occasionally. Spores of dung-colo-
nizing fungi are regularly found. The Cerealia pollen type is
PAZ Weih 3: 210 cal. BC–cal. AD 90 (203–145.5 cm)
present. In the bordering floodplain area, a meadow with Thal-
ictrum and Filipendula prevails. Subzone Weih 3a: 210–40 cal. BC (203–163 cm). AP values
are rather stable but Ulmus decreases significantly. Plantago
PAZ PW 2: 2290–2060 cal. BC (235–213 cm). Among the maritima and Chenopodiaceae rise, possibly pointing at saline
regional vegetation, Pinus is dominant with 20% while Betula conditions in the surroundings.
has slightly decreased. Pollen grains of Picea and broad-leaved
deciduous trees are regularly present. Artemisia decreases but Subzone Weih 3b: 40 cal. BC–cal. AD 90 (163–145.5 cm). AP
still remains dominant with ca. 40%. Chenopodiaceae as well values remain largely unchanged, but the percentage of broad-
as Plantago maritima, Polygonum aviculare, Limonium and leaved deciduous trees, apart from Ulmus, drops sharply. The
spores of dung-colonizing fungi are regularly documented. number of herbs declines as well. Artemisia reaches values over
The Cerealia pollen type appears sporadically. Peaks of Plan- 50%, while Poaceae are at a minimum.
tago maritima and Galium at the top of the zone are attributed
to local effects. PAZ Weih 4: cal. AD 90–440 (145.5–98 cm). AP percentages
are variable, especially Pinus values decline gradually.
PAZ PW 3: 2060–1570 cal. BC (213–191 cm) Artemisia values rise to over 50%. The broad-leaved decid-
uous trees Corylus, Alnus Tilia, Quercus and Ulmus are
Subzone PW 3a: 2060–1810 cal. BC (213–203 cm). Betula
present. The occurrence of Plantago major/media, Polygo-
and Pinus rise distinctly and broad-leaved deciduous trees like
num aviculare and Rumex points to ruderal conditions
Ulmus, Quercus, Tilia and Alnus appear regularly. Chenopodia-
within the steppe environment. The Cerealia pollen type is
ceae show a distinct peak of nearly 20% at the bottom of the
regularly proven.
zone and Artemisia decreases. At the top of the zone, Chenopo-
diaceae decrease and Poaceae increase. Dung-colonizing fungi
are reduced. Geranium and Sanguisorba officinalis grow in the PAZ Weih 5: cal. AD 440–630 (98–50 cm). AP values (espe-
floodplain meadow. cially Pinus, Picea) increase shortly up to 50%; Quercus and
Alnus are abundant. Artemisia values drop sharply under 20%.
The pollen grains of Plantago major/media, Polygonum avicu-
Subzone PW 3b: 1810–1570 cal. BC (203–191 cm). The
lare and Rumex represent ruderal conditions. The values of
values of trees and Artemisia remain unchanged. Chenopodia-
Poaceae are unchanged but the Chenopodiaceae rise up to 20%;
ceae values are low (<10%) and Poaceae decrease. Around
the Cerealia pollen type is present. A hiatus separates this zone
1700 cal. BC, dung-colonizing fungi are no longer proven. The
from PAZ Weih 6.
composition of herbs indicates the presence of species-rich
steppe vegetation.
PAZ Weih 6: cal. AD 1610–1920 (45–10 cm). The steppe vegeta-
tion has undergone significant changes. Broad-leaved deciduous
PAZ PW 4: 1570–880 cal. BC (191–155 cm). Betula values and
trees on river banks have largely disappeared and Poaceae have
numbers of herbaceous species are reduced. Values of Artemisia
decreased as well. In return, Brassicaceae are on the rise – prob-
show a short-term rise but eventually give way to significantly
ably as a mere local phenomenon. Plantago major/media and
increasing values of Chenopodiaceae.
Rumex underline the existence of ruderal sites.
Lake Weihe. In the pollen diagram, six PAZ were recognized
(Weih 1 to Weih 6) (Figure 5). Surface samples
Samples 1–7 are comparatively homogeneous concerning their
PAZ Weih 1: 620–400 cal. BC (288–253 cm). The pollen spec- composition of pollen types. AP reach between 21% and 42%
trum is dominated by NAP. They reach about 80% of the and are dominated by Pinus and Betula (Figure 6). Values of
regional pollen sum and represent steppe vegetation, with Arte- other broad-leaved deciduous trees vary between 0.5% and 3%.
misia, Poaceae, Chenopodiaceae and other herbs. Plantago Artemisia amounts to 20–37%, Poaceae values range between
major/media and Polygonum aviculare as typical representa- 10% and 24%. Chenopodiaceae reach 6–14%. Plantago major/
tives of ruderal sites are regularly present, just like the Cerealia media and other herbs attest the presence of ruderal sites. All
pollen-type. samples contain Cerealia as well as Polygonum aviculare with
values up to 2.7%.
Samples 8 and 9, however, show some peculiarities. AP
PAZ Weih 2: 400–210 cal. BC (253–203 cm)
reach almost 60%, with a dominance of Betula at 45% in sam-
Subzone Weih 2a: 400–310 cal. BC (253–233 cm). The AP/ ple 8. In contrast, Artemisia values of 13.7% are considerably
NAP-ratio remains nearly the same, but the proportions within the below those of other surface samples. In sample 9, the ratio is
steppe pollen types change. Artemisia decreases to its lowest level inverse with Artemisia at 62% and tree pollen at a mere 15%.
in favour of Poaceae and Chenopodiaceae. The composition of Cerealia pollen are constantly present, together with Polygo-
herbs indicates the presence of species-rich steppe vegetation. num aviculare. Both samples are strongly influenced by local
The Cerealia pollen type is proven. conditions.
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10 The Holocene
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