Table Of ContentBrewing
Science and practice
Dennis E. Briggs, Chris A. Boulton, Peter A. Brookes and
Roger Stevens
Copyright © 2004 Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press, LLC
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First published 2004, Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC
� 2004, Dennis E. Briggs, Chris A. Boulton, Peter A. Brookes and Roger Stevens
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Contents
Preface
1 An outline of brewing
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Malts
1.3 Mash tun adjuncts
1.4 Brewing liquor
1.5 Milling and mashing in
1.6 Mashing and wort separation systems
1.7 The hop-boil and copper adjuncts
1.8 Wort clarification, cooling and aeration
1.9 Fermentation
1.10 The processing of beer
1.11 Types of beer
1.12 Analytical systems
1.13 The economics of brewing
1.14 Excise
1.15 References and further reading
1.15.1 The systems of malting and brewing analysis
1.15.2 General references
2 Malts, adjuncts and supplementary enzymes
2.1 Grists and other sources of extract
2.2 Malting
2.2.1 Malting in outline
2.2.2 Changes occurring in malting grain
2.2.3 Malting technology
2.2.4 Malt analyses
2.2.5 Types of kilned malt
2.2.6 Special malts
Copyright © 2004 Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press, LLC
vi Contents
2.2.7 Malt specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3 Adjuncts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.1 Mash tun adjuncts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.2 Copper adjuncts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.4 Priming sugars, caramels, malt colourants and Farbebier . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.5 Supplementary enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3 Water, effluents and wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2 Sources of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.3 Preliminary water treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.4 Secondary water treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.5 Grades of water used in breweries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.6 The effects of ions on the brewing process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.7 Brewery effluents, wastes and by-products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.7.1 The characterization of waste water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.7.2 The characteristics of some brewery wastes and
by-products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.8 The disposal of brewery effluents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.8.1 Preliminary treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.8.2 Aerobic treatments of brewery effluents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.8.3 Sludge treatments and disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.8.4 Anaerobic and mixed treatments of brewery effluents . . . . . 79
3.9 Other water treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4 The science of mashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.2 Mashing schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.3 Altering mashing conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.3.1 The grist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.3.2 Malts in mashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.3.3 Mashing with adjuncts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.3.4 The influence of mashing temperatures and times on
wort quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.3.5 Non-malt enzymes in mashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.3.6 Mashing liquor and mash pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.3.7 Mash thickness, extract yield and wort quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.3.8 Wort separation and sparging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.4 Mashing biochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.4.1 Wort carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.4.2 Starch degradation in mashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.4.3 Non-starch polysaccharides in mashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.4.4 Proteins, peptides and amino acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.4.5 Nucleic acids and related substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.4.6 Miscellaneous substances containing nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.4.7 Vitamins and yeast growth factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.4.8 Lipids in mashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Copyright © 2004 Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press, LLC
4.4.9 Phenols
4.4.10 Miscellaneous acids
4.4.11 Inorganic ions in sweet wort
4.5 Mashing and beer flavour
4.6 Spent grains
4.7 References
5 The preparation of grists
5.1 Intake, handling and storage of raw materials
5.2 The principles of milling
5.3 Laboratory mills
5.4 Dry roller milling
5.5 Impact mills
5.6 Conditioned dry milling
5.7 Spray steep roller milling
5.8 Steep conditioning
5.9 Milling under water
5.10 Grist cases
5.11 References
6 Mashing technology
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Mashing in
6.3 The mash tun
6.3.1 Construction
6.3.2 Mash tun operations
6.4 Mashing vessels for decoction, double mashing and temperature-
programmed infusion mashing systems
6.4.1 Decoction and double mashing
6.4.2 Temperature-programmed infusion mashing
6.5 Lauter tuns
6.6 The Strainmaster
6.7 Mash filters
6.8 The choice of mashing and wort separation systems
6.9 Other methods of wort separation and mashing
6.10 Spent grains
6.11 Theory of wort separation
6.12 References
7 Hops
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Botany
7.3 Cultivation
7.4 Drying
7.5 Hop products
7.5.1 Hop pellets
7.5.2 Hop extracts
7.5.3 Hop oils
7.6 Pests and diseases
Copyright © 2004 Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press, LLC
7.6.1 Damson-hop aphid
7.6.2 (Red) Spider Mite
7.6.3 Other pests
7.6.4 Downy mildew
7.6.5 Powdery mildew
7.6.6 Verticillium wilt
7.6.7 Virus diseases
7.7 Hop varieties
7.8 References
8 The chemistry of hop constituents
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Hop resins
8.2.1 Introduction
8.2.2 Biosynthesis of the hop resins
8.2.3 Analysis of the hop resins
8.2.4 Isomerization of the �-acids
8.2.5 Hard resins and prenylflavonoids
8.2.6 Oxidation of the hop resins
8.3 Hop oil
8.3.1 Introduction
8.3.2 Hydrocarbons
8.3.3 Oxygen-containing components
8.3.4 Sulphur-containing compounds
8.3.5 Most potent odorants in hop oil
8.3.6 Hop oil constituents in beer
8.3.7 Post fermentation aroma products
8.4 Hop polyphenols (tannins)
8.5 Chemical identification of hop cultivars
8.6 References
9 Chemistry of wort boiling
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Carbohydrates
9.3 Nitrogenous constituents
9.3.1 Introduction
9.3.2 Proteins
9.4 Carbohydrate-nitrogenous constituent interactions
9.4.1 Melanoidins
9.4.2 Caramel
9.5 Protein-polyphenol (tannin) interactions
9.6 Copper finings and trub formation
9.7 References
10 Wort boiling, clarification, cooling and aeration
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The principles of heating wort
10.3 Types of coppers
10.4 The addition of hops
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10.5 Pressurized hop-boiling systems
10.5.1 Low-pressure boiling
10.5.2 Dynamic low-pressure boiling
10.5.3 Continuous high-pressure boiling
10.6 The control of volatile substances in wort
10.7 Energy conservation and the hop-boil
10.8 Hot wort clarification
10.9 Wort cooling
10.10 The cold break
10.11 Wort aeration/oxygenation
10.12 References
11 Yeast biology
11.1 Historical note
11.2 Taxonomy
11.3 Yeast ecology
11.4 Cellular composition
11.5 Yeast morphology
11.6 Yeast cytology
11.6.1 Cell wall
11.6.2 The periplasm
11.6.3 The plasma membrane
11.6.4 The cytoplasm
11.6.5 Vacuoles and intracellular membrane systems
11.6.6 Mitochondria
11.6.7 The nucleus
11.7 Yeast cell cycle
11.7.1 Yeast sexual cycle
11.8 Yeast genetics
11.8.1 Methods of genetic analysis
11.8.2 The yeast genome
11.9 Strain improvement
11.10 References
12 Metabolism of wort by yeast
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Yeast metabolism – an overview
12.3 Yeast nutrition
12.3.1 Water relations
12.3.2 Sources of carbon
12.3.3 Sources of nitrogen
12.3.4 Sources of minerals
12.3.5 Growth factors
12.4 Nutrient uptake
12.4.1 Sugar uptake
12.4.2 Uptake of nitrogenous nutrients
12.4.3 Lipid uptake
12.4.4 Ion uptake
12.4.5 Transport of the products of fermentation
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12.5 Sugar metabolism
12.5.1 Glycolysis
12.5.2 Hexose monophosphate (pentose phosphate) pathway
12.5.3 Tricarboxylic acid cycle
12.5.4 Electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation
12.5.5 Fermentative sugar catabolism
12.5.6 Gluconeogenesis and the glyoxylate cycle
12.5.7 Storage carbohydrates
12.5.8 Regulation of sugar metabolism
12.5.9 Ethanol toxicity and tolerance
12.6 The role of oxygen
12.7 Lipid metabolism
12.7.1 Fatty acid metabolism
12.7.2 Phospholipids
12.7.3 Sterols
12.8 Nitrogen metabolism
12.9 Yeast stress responses
12.10 Minor products of metabolism contributing to beer flavour
12.10.1 Organic and fatty acids
12.10.2 Carbonyl compounds
12.10.3 Higher alcohols
12.10.4 Esters
12.10.5 Sulphur-containing compounds
12.11 References
13 Yeast growth
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Measurement of yeast biomass
13.3 Batch culture
13.3.1 Brewery batch fermentations
13.3.2 Effects of process variables on fermentation performance
13.4 Yeast ageing
13.5 Yeast propagation
13.5.1 Maintenance and supply of yeast cultures
13.5.2 Laboratory yeast propagation
13.5.3 Brewery propagation
13.6 Fed-batch cultures
13.7 Continuous culture
13.8 Immobilized yeast reactors
13.9 Growth on solid media
13.10 Yeast identification
13.10.1 Microbiological tests
13.10.2 Biochemical tests
13.10.3 Tests based on cell surface properties
13.10.4 Non-traditional methods
13.11 Measurement of viability
13.12 Assessment of yeast physiological state
13.13 References
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14 Fermentation technologies
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Basic principles of fermentation technology
14.2.1 Fermentability of wort
14.2.2 Time course of fermentation
14.2.3 Heat output in fermentation
14.3 Bottom fermentation systems
14.3.1 Choice, size and shape of vessels
14.3.2 Construction of cylindroconical vessels
14.3.3 Operation of cylindroconical vessels
14.4 Top fermentation systems
14.4.1 Traditional top fermentation
14.4.2 Yorkshire square fermentation
14.4.3 Burton Union fermentation
14.5 Continuous fermentation
14.5.1 Early systems of continuous fermentation
14.5.2 The New Zealand system
14.5.3 Continuous primary fermentation with immobilized yeast
14.6 Fermentation control systems
14.6.1 Specific gravity changes
14.6.2 Other methods
14.7 Summary
14.8 References
15 Beer maturation and treatments
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Maturation: flavour and aroma changes
15.2.1 Principles of secondary fermentation
15.2.2 Important flavour changes 5
15.2.3 Techniques of maturation
15.2.4 Flavour, aroma and colour adjustments by addition
15.2.5 Maturation vessels
15.3 Stabilization against non-biological haze
15.3.1 Mechanisms for haze formation
15.3.2 Removal of protein
15.3.3 Removal of polyphenols
15.3.4 Combined treatments to remove protein and polyphenols
15.3.5 Hazes from other than protein or polyphenols
15.4 Carbonation
15.4.1 Carbon dioxide saturation
15.4.2 Carbon dioxide addition
15.4.3 Carbon dioxide recovery
15.5 Clarification and filtration
15.5.1 Removal of yeast and beer recovery
15.5.2 Beer filtration
15.6 Special beer treatments
15.6.1 Low-alcohol and alcohol-free beers
15.6.2 Ice beers
15.6.3 Diet beers
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15.7 Summary
15.8 References
16 Native African beers
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 An outline of the stages of production
16.1.2 Bouza
16.1.3 Merissa
16.1.4 Busaa and some other beers
16.1.5 Southern African beers
16.2 Malting sorghum and millets
16.3 Brewing African beers on an industrial scale
16.4 Attempts to obtain stable African beers
16.5 Beer composition and its nutritional value
16.6 References
17 Microbiology
17.1 Introduction
17.2 The microbiological threat to the brewing process
17.3 Beer spoilage micro-organisms
17.3.1 Detection of brewery microbial contaminants
17.3.2 Identification of brewery bacteria
17.3.3 Gram negative beer spoiling bacteria
17.3.4 Gram positive beer spoiling bacteria
17.3.5 Beer spoilage yeasts
17.3.6 Microbiological media and the cultivation of
micro-organisms
17.4 Microbiological quality assurance
17.5 Sampling
17.5.1 Sampling devices
17.6 Disinfection of pitching yeast
17.7 Cleaning in the brewery
17.7.1 Range of cleaning operations
17.7.2 CIP systems
17.7.3 Cleaning agents
17.7.4 Cleaning beer dispense lines
17.7.5 Validation of CIP
17.8 References
18 Brewhouses: types, control and economy
18.1 Introduction
18.2 History of brewhouse development
18.2.1 The tower brewery lay-out
18.2.2 The horizontal brewery lay-out
18.3 Types of modern brewhouses
18.3.1 Experimental brewhouses
18.3.2 Micro- and pub breweries
18.4 Control of brewhouse operations
18.4.1 Automation in the brewhouse
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