Brain and Behavior: A Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective

689 Pages·2015·135.053 MB·English

by  David Eagleman, Jonathan Downar

Brain
and
Behavior
A Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective
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Brain
and
Behavior
A Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective
DAVID EAGLEMAN
Baylor College of Medicine, Department of Neuroscience
Director, Initiative on Neuroscience and Law
JONATHAN DOWNAR
Department of Psychiatry and Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto
Toronto Western Hospital, University Health Network
New York Oxford
Oxford University Press
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Title: Brain and Behavior, 1e Short / Normal Publishing Services
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Eagleman, David.
Brain and behavior : a cognitive neuroscience perspective / David Eagleman,
Baylor College of Medicine, Department of Neuroscience, Director, Initiative
on Neuroscience and Law, Jonathan Downar, Department of Psychiatry and
Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto Western Hospital,
University Health Network.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-19-537768-2
1. Cognitive neuroscience. 2. Neuropsychiatry. I. Downar,
Jonathan. II. Title.
QP360.5.E24 2016
612.8'233—dc23
2015013925
Printing number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper
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DEDICATION
From David:
To Cirel, Arthur, Read, Francis, and Sarah, in the order
that I met you.
From Jonathan:
In loving memory of Ann Downar—devoted mother of
two sons, and keen-eyed editor of many a
manuscript—a gifted wielder of the red pen, from
whom no detail was too small to escape notice. With
gratitude that you were able to see this book take shape
in its early days and with the hope that its final form
would have made you proud.
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BRIEF CONTENTS
PREFACE xv
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xxi
PART I THE BASICS
CHAPTER 1 Introduction 2
CHAPTER 2 The Brain and Nervous System 36
CHAPTER 3 Neurons and Synapses 74
CHAPTER 4 Neuroplasticity 102
PART II HOW THE BRAIN INTERACTS WITH THE WORLD
CHAPTER 5 Vision 130
CHAPTER 6 Other Senses 162
CHAPTER 7 The Motor System 196
PART III HIGHER LEVELS OF INTERACTION
CHAPTER 8 Attention and Consciousness 232
CHAPTER 9 Memory 270
CHAPTER 10 Sleep 308
CHAPTER 11 Language and Lateralization 336
PART IV MOTIVATED BEHAVIORS
CHAPTER 12 Decision Making 362
CHAPTER 13 Emotions 398
CHAPTER 14 Motivation and Reward 438
CHAPTER 15 Social Cognition 472
PART V DISORDERS OF BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR
CHAPTER 16 Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders 514
GLOSSARY 556
REFERENCES 585
CREDITS 637
NAME INDEX 643
SUBJECT INDEX 657
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CONTENTS
PREFACE xv The Payoffs of Cognitive Neuroscience 28
Healing the Disordered Brain 29
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xxi
Enhancing Human Abilities 30
Blueprints for Artificial Cognition 31
PART I THE BASICS
Brain-Compatible Social Policies 31
CHAPTER 1 Introduction 2 Conclusion 33
Key Principles 33
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 2
Key Terms 34
STARTING OUT: A Spark of Awe in the Darkness 4
Review Questions 34
Who Are We? 5
Critical-Thinking Questions 35
The Mission of Cognitive Neuroscience 5
Neuroscience Is a Relatively New Field 6
CHAPTER 2 The Brain and Nervous
In Pursuit of Principles 6
System 36
The Functions behind the Form 6
Which Parts Matter? 7 LEARNING OBJECTIVES 36
What Is the Brain For? 8 STARTING OUT: The Brains of Creatures Great and
How We Know What We Know 9 Small 38
Connectional Methods 10 An Overview of the Nervous System 39
Correlational Methods 11 Why Put Your Neurons in a Brain at All? 39
Research Methods: Magnetic Resonance Imaging 12 The Common Features of Every Central Nervous
Lesion Methods 13 System 40
Stimulation Methods 14 Getting Oriented in the Brain 42
A Toolbox of Complementary Methods 16 The Peripheral Nervous System 43
Thinking Critically about the Brain 16 Separate Systems for the Inner and
Outer Environments 43
Is the Brain Equipped to Understand Itself? 16
A Nervous System with Segmental Organization 44
Biases and Pitfalls in Human Cognition 17
A Toolbox of Critical-Thinking Techniques 18 The Spinal Cord 47
The Big Questions in Cognitive Neuroscience 19 Circuits within a Segment: Spinal Reflexes 47
Case Study: Christopher Reeve, 1952–2004 47
Why Have a Brain at All? (Chapter 2) 19
Complex Circuits across Segments: Central Pattern
How Is Information Coded in Neural Activity?
Generators 49
(Chapter 3) 20
The Bigger Picture: I n Search of a Cure for Spinal Cord
How Does the Brain Balance Stability against Change?
Injury 50
(Chapter 4) 20
Why Does Vision Have So Little to Do with the Eyes? The Brainstem 51
(Chapter 5) 21 Medulla Oblongata and Pons 51
How Does the Brain Stitch Together a Picture of the World Neuroscience of Everyday Life: W hy Do We Get the
from Different Senses? (Chapter 6) 21 Hiccups? 53
How Does the Brain Control Our Actions? (Chapter 7) 22 Midbrain 53
What Is Consciousness? (Chapter 8) 22 Most Cranial Nerves Emerge from the Brainstem 54
How Are Memories Stored and Retrieved? (Chapter 9) 23 The Cerebellum 54
Why Do Brains Sleep and Dream? (Chapter 10) 24 Circuitry of the “Little Brain” 56
How Does the Human Brain Acquire Its Unique Ability for Functions of the Little Brain 56
Language? (Chapter 11) 24
The Diencephalon: Hypothalamus and
How Do We Make Decisions? (Chapter 12) 25
Thalamus 57
What Are Emotions? (Chapter 13) 25
Hypothalamus: A Keystone Structure in Homeostasis 57
How Do We Set Our Priorities? (Chapter 14) 27
Thalamus 59
How Do I Know What You’re Thinking? (Chapter 15) 27
Case Study: Waking the Brain 61
What Causes Disorders of the Mind and the Brain?
(Chapter 16) 28
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viii Contents
The Telencephalon: Cerebral Cortex and Basal Key Principles 100
Ganglia 61 Key Terms 100
Cerebral Cortex 61 Review Questions 101
Basal Ganglia 64 Critical-Thinking Questions 101
Research Methods: Cytoarchitecture of the Cortex 64
Uniting the Inside and Outside Worlds 66 CHAPTER 4 Neuroplasticity 102
The Limbic System 66
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 102
The Ventricular System and Brain Function 68
STARTING OUT: The Child with Half a Brain 104
Conclusion 69
The Brain Dynamically Reorganizes to Match Its
Key Principles 71
Inputs 105
Key Terms 71
Changes to the Body Plan 105
Review Questions 72
Case Study: Phantom Sensation 106
Critical-Thinking Questions 73 Research Methods: Mapping Out the Brain 107
Changes to Sensory Input 107
CHAPTER 3 Neurons and Synapses 74
The Brain Distributes Resources Based on
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 74 Relevance 109
STARTING OUT: The Kabuki Actor and the Pufferfish 76 The Role of Behavior 109
The Cells of the Brain 77 The Role of Relevance: Gating Plasticity with
Neuromodulation 109
Neurons: A Close-Up View 77
Neuroscience of Everyday Life: P ianists and Violinists
Many Different Types of Neurons 79
Have Different
Glial Cells 80
Brains 110
Research Methods: Visualizing Neurons and Their
Case Study: The Government Worker with the Missing
Products 81
Brain 112
Synaptic Transmission: Chemical Signaling in the The Brain Uses the Available Tissue 113
Brain 83
Maps Adjust Themselves to the Available Brain Tissue 113
Release of Neurotransmitter at the Synapse 83
Cortical Reorganization after Brain Damage 114
Types of Neurotransmitters 84
A Sensitive Period for Plastic Changes 114
Receptors 85
A Window of Time to Make Changes 114
Postsynaptic Potentials 86
Case Study: Danielle, the Feral Child in the Window 115
The Bigger Picture: Psychoactive Drugs 87
The Sensitive Period in Language 116
Spikes: Electrical Signaling in the Brain 88
Neuromodulation in Young Brains 116
Adding Up the Signals 88
Hardwiring versus World Experience 117
How an Action Potential Travels 89
Aspects of the Brain Are Preprogrammed 117
Myelinating Axons to Make the Action Potential Travel
Experience Changes the Brain 117
Faster 90
Brains Rely on Experience to Unpack Their Programs
Action Potentials Reach the Terminals and Cause
Correctly 119
Neurotransmitter Release 91
Case Study: Multiple Sclerosis 91 The Mechanisms of Reorganization 120
Neuroscience of Everyday Life: Th e Magic of a Local Neurons Compete for Limited Space 120
Anesthetic 92 Competition for Neurotrophins 121
What Do Spikes Mean? The Neural Code 93 Rapid Changes: Unmasking Existing Connections 122
Encoding Stimuli in Spikes 93 Slow Changes: Growth of New Connections 123
Decoding Spikes 95 Changing the Input Channels 123
Research Methods: Recording Action Potentials with Case Study: The Man Who Climbs with His Tongue 125
Electrodes 96 The Bigger Picture: Adding New Peripherals 126
Individuals and Populations 97 Conclusion 126
Populations of Neurons 97 Key Principles 127
Forming a Coalition: What Constitutes a Group? 98 Key Terms 127
Open Questions for Future Investigation 99
Review Questions 128
Conclusion 100
Critical-Thinking Questions 128
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Contents ix
PART II HOW THE BRAIN CHAPTER 6 Other Senses 162
INTERACTS WITH LEARNING OBJECTIVES 162
THE WORLD STARTING OUT: The Man with the Bionic Ear 164
Detecting Data from the World 165
CHAPTER 5 Vision 130
Hearing 165
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 130
Research Methods: Psychophysics 166
STARTING OUT: Vision Is More Than the Eyes 132 The Outer and Middle Ear 167
Visual Perception 132 Converting Mechanical Information into Electrical Signals:
What Is It Like to See? 132 The Inner Ear 168
Signal Transduction 133 Neuroscience of Everyday Life: Th e Undetectable Cell
Phone 169
Anatomy of the Visual System 134
The Auditory Nerve and Primary Auditory Cortex 170
Sensory Transduction: The Eye and Its Retina 134
The Hierarchy of Sound Processing 171
Case Study: The Bionic Retina 137
Sound Localization 172
Path to the Visual Cortex: The Lateral Geniculate
Balance 173
Nucleus 139
The Visual Cortex 139 The Somatosensory System 174
Two Eyes Are Better Than One: Stereo Vision 141 Touch 174
Neuroscience of Everyday Life: Random-Dot Temperature 175
Stereograms 142 Pain 175
Higher Visual Areas 142 Case Study: The Pain of a Painless Existence 176
Secondary and Tertiary Visual Cortex: Processing Becomes Proprioception 177
More Complex 142 Interoception 177
Ventral Stream: What an Object Is 143 The Somatosensory Pathway 179
The Bigger Picture: Reading the Movies in Our Chemical Senses 180
Minds 145
Taste 180
Dorsal Stream: How to Interact with the World 146
Smell 183
Case Study: The World in Snapshots 147
The Sense of Flavor 184
Attention and the Dorsal Stream 148
Pheromones 185
Comparing the Ventral and Dorsal Processing Streams 149
The Brain Is Multisensory 185
The Bigger Picture of the Visual Brain 150
Synesthesia 186
Case Study: The Blind Woman Who Could See,
Combining Sensory Information 186
Sort Of 150
The Binding Problem 188
Perception Is Active, Not Passive 151
The Internal Model of the World 189
Interrogating the Scene with Our Eyes 151
Case Study: The Paralyzed Supreme Court Justice Who
The Blind Spot 152
Claimed He Could Play Football 189
Seeing the Same Object Different Ways: Multistability 152
Time Perception 190
Binocular Rivalry: Different Images in the Two Eyes 152
Conclusion 193
We Don’t See Most of What Hits Our Eyes: Fetching
Information on a Need-to-Know Basis 153 Key Principles 193
Vision Relies on Expectations 154 Key Terms 194
Review Questions 194
Change Blindness 154
Saving Resources by Embedding Prior Experience 155 Critical-Thinking Questions 195
Unconscious Inference 156
Activity from Within 157 CHAPTER 7 The Motor System 196
Feedback Allows an Internal Model 157 LEARNING OBJECTIVES 196
Conclusion 158
STARTING OUT: “‘Locked-In Syndrome”’ 198
Key Principles 159
Muscles 199
Key Terms 160
Skeletal Muscle: Structure and Function 199
Review Questions 160
The Neuromuscular Junction 200
Critical-Thinking Questions 161
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