Bottom Soils, Sediment, and Pond Aquaculture

348 Pages·1995·0.61 MB·English

by  Claude E. Boyd (auth.)

BOTTOM SOILS,
SEDIMENT,
AND POND
AQUACULTURE
BOTTOM SOILS,
SEDIMENT,
AND rOND
AQUACULTURE
CLAUDE E. BOYD
Department of Fisheries and Allied AQuacultures
at Auburn Un iversity. Alabama
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.
Copyright © 1995
Springer Science+ Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Chapman & Hali in 1995
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1995
AII rights reserved. No part of this book covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in
any form or by any means--graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping,
or information storage and retrieval systems--without the written permission of the publisher.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 XXX 01 00 99 98 97 96 95
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Boyd, Clause E.
Bottom soils, sediment and pond aquaculture / Claude E. Boyd.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4613-5720-9 ISBN 978-1-4615-1785-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-1785-6
1. Pond aquaculture. 2. Pond soils 3. Pond sediments.
I. Title.
SH137.4.B69 1995 94-44496
639.3'll--dc20 CIP
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data available
Table of Contents
Preface ix
Symbols xi
Abbreviations xv
Atomic Weights xvii
Customary Metric Conversion Factors xviii
1. Soils in Pond Aquaculture 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1. 2 Pond Soils 1
1.3 Critical Soil Properties 4
1.4 Reactions and Processes 5
1.5 Soils and Aquacultural Production 6
1. 6 Pond Soil Management 6
1.7 Pond Soil Analysis 7
1.8 Prospectus 8
2. Physical. Chemical. and Mineralogical Properties of Soils 10
2.1 Introduction 10
2.2 Soil 11
2.3 Particle Size in Soils 18
2.4 Organic Matter 21
2.5 Soil Density and Pore Space 24
2.6 Soil Water 27
2.7 Gases 35
2.8 Soil Colloids 36
2.9 Color 40
2.10 Ion Exchange 41
2.11 Acidity 44
v
vi I Bottom Soils, Sediment, and Pond Aquaculture
2.12 Soil pH 50
2.13 Soil Classification 51
2.14 Soil Maps 57
2.15 Pond Soils 66
3. Soil Nutrients 69
3.1 Introduction 69
3.2 Soil Solution 70
3.3 Chemical Equilibrium 71
3.4 Macronutrient Cations 81
3.5 Bicarbonate and Carbonate 82
3.6 Nitrogen 83
3.7 Sulfur 86
3.8 Phosphorus 87
3.9 Silicon 94
3.10 Micronutrient Cations 95
3.11 Micronutrient Anions 99
3.12 Nutrient Concentrations in Pond Soils 99
4. Exchange of Dissolved Substances between Soil and Water 113
4.1 Introduction 113
4.2 Exchange Between Soil Particles and Water 114
4.3 Transport of Dissolved Substances 120
4.4 Examples of Exchange Phenomena in Ponds 129
5. Soil Organic Matter and Aerobic Respiration 149
5. 1 Introduction 149
5.2 Microbial Physiology 152
5.3 Biochemical Compounds 160
5.4 Soil Organic Matter 167
5.5 Soil Respiration 174
5.6 Organic Matter Concentrations 180
6. Soil Organic Matter, Anaerobic Respiration, and Oxidation-Reduction 194
6.1 Introduction 194
6.2 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 195
6.3 Oxidation-Reduction Potential 196
6.4 Anaerobic Respiration 205
6.5 Reduced Soils 209
7. Sediment 219
7. 1 Introduction 219
7.2 Sources of Sediment 220
Table of Contents I vii
7.3 Principles of Sedimentation 229
7.4 Sediment Control 240
8. Relationships to Aquatic Animal Production 253
8.1 Introduction 253
8.2 Flora and Fauna 253
8.3 Soil Condition and Fish Production 258
8.4 Effects of Aquatic Animals on the Soil 264
9. Pond Bottom Management 267
9.1 Introduction 267
9.2 Liming 267
9.3 Bottom Soil Sterilization 277
9.4 Oxidation of Bottom Soil 281
9.5 Sediment 295
9.6 Summary 300
10. Pond Bouom Soil Analyses 304
10.1 Introduction 304
10.2 Soil Samples 304
10.3 Soil Moisture: Gravimetric Analysis of Water Content 317
10.4 Particle Size and Texture: Hydrometer Method 317
10.5 Bulk Density, Particle Density, and Porosity 321
10.6 Organic Matter 323
10.7 Soil Respiration 326
10.8 Soil pH and Lime Requirement 331
10.9 Nutrients 338
Index 341
Preface
Aquaculture pond managers measure water-quality variables and attempt to
maintain them within optimal ranges for shrimp and fish, but surprisingly little
attention is paid to pond soil condition. Soil-water interactions can strongly
impact water quality, and soil factors should be considered in aquaculture pond
management.
The importance of soils in pond management will be illustrated with an example
from pond fertilization and another from aeration. Pond fertilization may not
produce phytoplankton blooms in acidic ponds. Total alkalinity is too low to
provide adequate carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, and acidic soils adsorb
phosphate added in fertilizer before phytoplankton can use it. Agricultural lime
stone application can raise total alkalinity and neutralize soil acidity. The amount
of limestone necessary to cause these changes in a pond depends on the base
unsaturation and exchange acidity of the bottom soil. Two ponds with the same
total alkalinity and soil pH may require vastly different quantities of limestone
because they differ in exchange acidity.
Aeration enhances dissolved oxygen concentrations in pond water and permits
greater feed inputs to enhance fish or shrimp production. As feeding rates are
raised, organic matter accumulates in pond soils. In ponds with very high feeding
rates, aeration may supply enough dissolved oxygen in the water column for fish
or shrimp, but it may be impossible to maintain aerobic conditions in the surface
layers of pond soil. Toxic metabolites produced by microorganisms in anaerobic
soils may enter the pond water and harm fish or shrimp.
Aquacultural education has traditionally been slanted toward basic animal
biology. Teachers normally emphasize the biology and husbandry of individual
species, and environmental aspects of pond management are somewhat neglected.
The situation is improving, because in recent years more attention has been given
to water quality and water-supply-related topics. Soil science still is largely
ignored in the training of aquaculturists. In my opinion, aquacultural education
ix
x / Bottom Soils, Sediment, and Pond Aquaculture
is incomplete without a basic course in soil science, and a course in soil fertility
is highly desirable. Even after students have taken basic soils courses, they need
to learn how soil science is related to aquaculture.
I hope that this book will help aquaculturists obtain a better understanding of
those principles of soil science that are important in pond management. Readers
with no prior knowledge of soil science will need to supplement information in
this book by studying selected topics in a general soil science book. I am certain
that a little effort devoted to studying pond soils can be worthwhile to students,
pond managers, extension workers, and researchers interested in pond aqua
culture.
I am indebted to Dr. Ben Hajek and Dr. Fred Adams of the Department of
Agronomy and Soils, Auburn University who have given me advice for a great
many years. I am grateful for the opportunities that I have had to collaborate
with several researchers-Drs. Yoram Avnimelech, Craig S. Tucker, Harry
Daniels, H. S. Schmittou, Yont Musig, Bartholomew Green, and David Teichert
Coddington-and several shrimp farm operators-Gilberto Escobar, Jeffrey Pe
terson, Kenneth Corpron, and Dan Fegan~n various pond soil projects. I
learned much from these associations. Most of all, I am indebted to the many
graduate students who worked with me over the years. They have been a source
of never-ending inspiration and help.
This book could not have been completed without the assistance of June Bums,
who typed the entire manuscript, Margaret Tanner, who made the final copies
of all of the artwork, and Prasert Munsiri, who provided considerable editorial
assistance. I greatly appreciate their efforts.
Symbols
Chapter 2
A = area (length2)
F = force
g = gravitational acceleration (9.8 m sec-2)
h = height
= hydraulic gradient (m m-I)
k = hydraulic conductivity (cm sec-I)
Kw = equilibrium constant for water
m = mass
pH = negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity
Q = discharge (volume time-I)
r = radius (length)
V = volume (length3)
v = seepage velocity (m sec-I)
w = weight
'Y = viscosity of water (0.073 N m-I at 20°C)
T/ = porosity
() = angular measurement
7T = pi (3.1416)
p = specific weight (kg m -3)
Chapter 3
a = ion activity (molar)
I = ionic strength (molar)
K = equilibrium constant
In = natural logarithm
xi
xii / Bottom Soils, Sediment, and Pond Aquaculture
log = common logarithm
m = measured molar concentration
mole = 1 gram molecular weight
pH = negative logarithm of hydrogen ion activity
Q = reaction quotient
R = universal gas law constant (0.001987 kcal °A -I)
S; = effective size of ion i
Z; = charge of ion i
'Y = activity coefficient
t1F/ = standard free energy of formation (kcal)
t1Fo = standard free energy of reaction (kcal)
r
Chapter 4
b = empirical coefficient for Langmuir adsorption isotherm
C = concentration of substance (weight volume -I)
D = diffusion coefficient
dQldt = rate of loss of substance from water
K = Freundlich adsorption coefficient
f
= soil distribution coefficient
KSD
lin = slope of line
log = common logarithm
m = mass of adsorbent
pH = negative logarithm of hydrogen ion activity
r2 = coefficient of determination
V. = equilibrium concentration
X = amount of substance adsorbed
= thickness of oxidized layer
= maximum amount of substance adsorbed
Chapter 5
= organic matter influx to soil (g m-2 yr-I)
= final organic matter concentration (%)
= initial organic matter concentration (%)
= base of natural logarithm (2.303)
g = generation time (hours)
K = rate constant for organic matter decomposition (time -I)
In = natural logarithm
n = number of bacterial generations
No = initial number of bacterial cells
Nt = number of bacterial cells at time t
t = time