Table Of ContentBOSCH-BRDEGEL
THE l^ORTHERM REMISSANCE
AI«D
By CLAUDIA LYN CAHAN and CATHERINE RILEY
BOSCH BRUEGEL
~
MD
THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE
By CLAUDIA LYN CAHAN
and CATHERINE RILEY
AVENEL BOOKS
NEW YORK
Bosch Bruegel andthe Northern Renaissance
© MCMLXXX by Fabbri Editori, Milan, Italy
All Rights Reserved
First U.S. Edition published 1980 byAvenel Books
distributed by Crown Publishers Inc.
PrintedainbItacly bdyeFabfbrgi Ehditiori, Milan.
LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData
Cahan,ClaudiaLyn.
Bosch. Bruegel.andtheNorthernRenaissance.
1. Bosch,2.HPiaeinrtoinnygm,uRsenvaainsAsaknecne,—kGneorwmnanasy,.d. 1516.
3. Bru.e—gBeell,giPiuemte—r,Fltahnedeelrdse.r,5.d.Al1l5e6g9o.rie4s..P6a.inStiynmgb,olRiesnamisinsance
art. 1. Riley.Catherine,jointauthor. II.Title.
ND653.B65C3.^ 1979759.0379-21697
ISBN0-517-30373-6
The conquest ofthe visible world, the exploration and the introduction
ofa new sense ofrealism
During the 130 yearsfrom the end ofthe fourteenth century to from thestudy ofuniversalstothesearchfortheindividual, led
the middle of the sixteenth century, the European world view the arust to develop techniques he could use to reproduce
changed irrevocably. This period, which saw the waning ofthe accurately the breadth ofthe life he began to see around him.
MiddleAges, theRenaissance, and theReformation, gavemena Thisinvesdgation and reproducdonofnature haditsbeginnings
new concept of themselves, in which they and their physical intheInternationalGothicStyleofpainting, theleadingformof
universe replaced purely spiritual concerns as a prime object of whichwasfoundm the northinminiatures. Intheearlyyearsof
attenuon and study. This was reflected in the new perspectives, the fifteenth century, a group ofFlemings who had settled in
forms, and techniques of their art. Each country in Europe France, theLimbourgBrothers, producedthewellknownBookof
expressed the change in itsown way: in the south, in Italy, the Hours oftheDue de Berry. There, on the calendar pages, they
artistic revolution was more fundamental, an abrupt break with painted,inindmatedetail, thelivesofpeasantsandnoblemenas
the traditions ofthe past; but in the north, in Flanders, those they experienced the passing seasons. In these tiny paintings,
traditionswereusedasapointofdeparture. there are light and shadow, distant landscapes, and minute but
However, in both areas, the goal was the same-the attempt to perfectflowers, birds, andbeasts. Itwaslefttothepaintersofthe
conquer the visible world, to explore and to bring to art a new Northern Renaissance to develop these ideals and bring them to
senseofrealism. full-sizedpainting.
The work ofJan van Eyck, Rogier van der Weyden, Petrus
Christus,HugovanderGoes,HansMemling,HieronymusBosch, Jan van Eyck
andPieterBruegel theElderspans this dmeofchange, andeach
ofthese paintersplayed a role in the evolution ofthe Northern The first artist to fully realize the ideals of fifteenth century
Renaissance. Though firmly rooted in their nauve region, the Flemish realism was Jan van Eyck (1390-1441). He is closely
Flemish masters, through theirportrayal ofintense realism, had associatedwith the townofBmges, agreat tradingcenteroflate
an impact thatextended far beyond theirown country and their medieval Flandersthat has beencalled the birthplaceofFlemish
owntime painung. Van Eyck spent a good poruon ofhis life as a court
During the Middle Ages, painung had played a reladvely minor painter, servingJohnofBavariafrom 1422 to 1424andmovinga
role to that ofarchitecture and sculpture, existing mainly as a year later to the court ofPhilip the Good, Duke ofBurgundy,
decorative art in the service ofreligious ideals and institutions. whowasagreatpatronoftheartsandwasbuildinganewpalace
However, bythefifteenthcentury.Christianphilosophybeganto in Bruges. Their reladonship was one of mutual respect and
changeitspositiononthenatureoftheworld.Thegrowingideas admiration,andvanEyckmadeseveralsecretjourneysonbusiness
thatthegodheadwas implicit ineveryelementofnaturecreated for the duke. Van Eyck also worked for wealthy Italians who
thepossibilityfor theworldanditsbeauty toserveasasourceof resided in Bruges-most notably Giovanni Arnolfini-and
religious inspiration. With the dawning Renaissance, rigid throughthem,hisfamespreadtoItaly.
concepts of the world that had been held for more than a For centuries, the debate raged as to whether van Eyck was the
thousand years began togiveway toa growing curiosity and an inventorofoilpaints. It hasgenerallybeenconcededthathewas
exciung rediscovery of the physical universe. Nature and man not-as, indeed, no single individual was-but his method of
were suddenly worthy ofan attention and an investigation they usingoilsdidenhance theirdevelopmentandperpetuation. Van
hadnotbeengivensinceantiquity. Eyck experimented by mixing his colors with various oils and
Theseideals,spurredbyanominalistphilosophythatturnedmen varnishes to obtain a mediiim that was fluid enough to enable
:J/
.|rl.ft'
v^ffi? ,;','.• Mil
'ii^- ;,"*-^;i ' SaintBarbara Anversa, MuseeRoyaldesBeaux-Arts
paramount example of this mixture ofsymbols and pragmatic
detail.Uponcloseexamination,weseethateveryfinegraininthe
wooden floor is included. The weave of the fabrics-a favorite
subjectofpainterswhosepatronswereofteninvolvedinthecloth
k';-^^ .,y^ r^' trade-is recreated. Every hair in the fur trim of Giovanni
Arnolfini'scoat istakenintoaccount.Thepaintingisalsofullof
inscriptionsandsymbols. Thestationsofthecrossarepaintedon
the frameofthemirrorhanging behind thecouple, whileinthe
mirrorisreflectedtheimagesofthepainterandapossiblewitness
to the wedding. The dog isasymbol offilial devotion, and the
fruit on the windowsill represents propagation. Van Eyck's
contemporarieseasilyunderstoodsuchsymbols, andtheyderived
pleasurefromdecipheringapainting.
Van Eyck gave equal importance to the purely realistic features
and tothesymbolicelementsofhispaintings.Infact, ithasbeen
suggested that theformermay have been ofgreater importance
heresincethepaintingpossiblyservedasalegaldocument,akind
ofvisualmarriagelicense. Perhapsthisexplainswhytheartisthas
him to apply the paint layer by layer, thereby achieving the placedhissignatureprominentlyonthewallabovethemirror.
subtlest effectsoflight and detailand allowing thedarker tones
underneath toshow through and impartdepth andsubstance to Rogiervan derWeyden
theimages.VanEyckusedtheveryrefinedandclearoilsjustthen
becomingavailable in themerchantcitiesofFlandersand mixed Rogier van der Weyden (1399/1400-1464) was the next most
them with the new sources ofcolors arriving on the spice ships influentialfigureinthedevelopmentoffifteenthcenturyFlemish
fromAfricaandtheEast-aninnovationthatinpartaccountsfor painting, and his teacher, the Master of Flemalle, Robert
thetheorythathediscoveredoilpainting. Campin, is considered the third most important leader. Robert
His extraordinary use ofoil and colorwas only one aspect ofhis Campindidindeedpavetheway,buttheartofhispupil,vander
immense influence. The otherwas hisgreat desireand ability to Weyden, had a more direct impact on Flemish and European
perfectly portray reality. No artist had ever been more painting. Van der Weyden was born in Tournai but lived and
preoccupied with the presentation ofdetail, with exactitude of worked in Brussels. His excellent command of graphic detail
eventhefinestparticleofthenaturalworld.Thehumaneyecould enabled him to use it asameans ofdramatic characterization in
take in only a limited perception ofreality, but van Eyck went paintingswheretheactionofthefiguresisofasgreatimportance
beyond those limits and, with infinite patience, strove to astherealisticdetail. IthasbeensaidthatvanderWeyden took
reconstruct, ratherthanmerelyrepresentorsuggestreality.Itwas thelessonshelearnedfromthefoundersofFlemishrealism-that
through his building up of minute details that he realized a is, from van Eyck and Campin-and blended them into a
completeexpressionofthewhole. powerful unity, which was then transmitted tohisfollowersand
The Arnolfim Wedding (Plates XXVIIl and XXIX) is a totherestofEurope.
PortraitofaNoble Woman -
Washington, NationalGalleryofArt (Mellon Collection)
Amajorproblemforarthistorianswhowish tostudyhisworksis
thatnoneofvanderWeyden'spaintingsareknownauthentically
tohavebeensignedbyhim,andhisinfluencewassogreatthathe
hadmanyimitators.Therefore, thereareconstantcontroversiesas
to which pictures can definitely be attributed to him. Van der
Weyden achieved great fame, and hisworks, which werefullof
warm color and emouon, were well received among his
contemporaries. His most crucial contribution to the future of
painung was as an intermediary between the Flemish and the
Italian art worlds. In 1450, he visited Rome and Florence. The
rclauonship between theItalianand Flemishschoolsofthis time
wassomewhatone-sided.WhiletheFlemingsremainedrelatively
unresponsive to the art of the early Italian Renaissance, the
Italians admired the Flemish use of light and color and the
prevalence in their paintings ofnaturalisuc details. As a result,
after van der Weyden's trip, the Italians developed a more
extensive use oflandscape and itsdetails, and they began to use
contemporaryinteriorsettingsas thecontext forreligiousevents.
Therewasalsoanincreasedinterestinnaturalisticlightingandin
the textures that different lightscreated, but, most importantly,
through the Flemish, the methods of oil painting reached
Southern Europe. The classical, humanist vision and the quasi-
scienuficpreoccupadonwithperspectiveoftheItaliansheldmuch
less interest for the Flemish, and it was not until the sixteenth
centurythattheybegantobestronglyinfluencedbytheItalians.
PetrusChristus
Van derWeyden's influence was evident in the works ofPetrus
Christus,whoflourishedinBrugesinthemid-fifteenthcentury.In
alllikelihood, heservedasanapprenuceinvanEyck'sshopthere,
andhewasconsideredthemostimportantmasterinthecityafter
vanEyck'sdeath. ThereareaspectsofvanEyck's naturalisticand
objective tradition in Christus's work. At the same time,
Christus's art reflects the teachings ofthe MasterofFlemalle as
they were finally expressed in the emotional style ofRogiervan
derWeyden. Christus'sownstyle was ratherheavy, and his best
