Table Of ContentGraduate Texts in Physics
Gerd Keiser
Biophotonics
Concepts to Applications
Second Edition
Graduate Texts in Physics
Series Editors
Kurt H. Becker, NYU Polytechnic School of Engineering, Brooklyn, NY, USA
Jean-Marc Di Meglio, Matière et Systèmes Complexes, Bâtiment Condorcet,
Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France
Sadri Hassani, Department of Physics, Illinois State University, Normal, IL, USA
Morten Hjorth-Jensen, Department of Physics, Blindern, University of Oslo, Oslo,
Norway
Bill Munro, NTT Basic Research Laboratories, Atsugi, Japan
Richard Needs, Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
William T. Rhodes, Department of Computer and Electrical Engineering and
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Susan Scott, Australian National University, Acton, Australia
H. Eugene Stanley, Center for Polymer Studies, Physics Department, Boston
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Martin Stutzmann, Walter Schottky Institute, Technical University of Munich,
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Gerd Keiser
Biophotonics
Concepts to Applications
Second Edition
123
Gerd Keiser
Department ofElectrical andComputer
Engineering
BostonUniversity
Newton, MA, USA
ISSN 1868-4513 ISSN 1868-4521 (electronic)
Graduate Textsin Physics
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To
Ching-Yun, Nishla, Keith, Kai, and Neyla for
their loving patience and encouragement
Preface
The discipline of biophotonics or biomedical optics has undergone a fascinating
journey in the past several decades, and it is still growing rapidly. As the name
biophotonics implies, this discipline deals with the interaction between light and
biologicalmaterial.Theapplicationofthisfieldtobiologicaldisciplinesisbasedon
a wide range of photonic technologies. These technologies involve the generation,
detection, and control of photons for enabling functions such as transferring or
processinginformation,analyzingbiomaterialcharacteristics,sensingormeasuring
changes in biological tissue parameters, and modifying biomaterial characteristics.
The resulting interactions can be used in almost all biomedical areas for basic life
science research and for biomedical diagnosis, therapy, monitoring, imaging, and
surgery.
Owing to the importance of biophotonics to all aspects of human health, it is
essential that a wide range of biomedical researchers, healthcare professionals,
clinical technicians, and biomedical engineers have a good understanding of bio-
photonics and its applications. To address the attainment and implementation
oftheseskills,thisbookprovidesthebasicmaterialforaone-semestercourseinthe
fundamentalsandapplicationsofbiophotonictechnologyforseniororpostgraduate
students.Italsowillservewellasaworkingreferenceorasashort-coursetextbook
for biomedical researchers, practicing physicians, healthcare professionals, clinical
technicians, and biomedical engineers and technicians dealing with the design,
development, and application of photonic components and instrumentation to
biophotonic issues.
In Chaps. 1–5, the sequence of topics takes the reader systematically from the
underlyingprinciplesoflightandbiology,throughthefundamentalsofopticalfiber
light guiding, and then through optical sources and photodetection methods. Next,
the topics in Chaps. 6–10 address the concepts of light–tissue interactions, various
optical probes and photonic sensing techniques, the principles of microscopy and
spectroscopy, and biophotonic imaging modalities. The final chapter discusses
advanced techniques and developments such as optical trapping, miniaturized
lab-on-a-chip instruments, photonics in dentistry, the principles of time-correlated
single photon counting, smartphone spectrometers, wearable biophotonic body
sensors, robotic surgery, and optogenetics procedures. By mastering these funda-
mental topics, the reader will be prepared not only to contribute to current
vii
viii Preface
biomedical photonics disciplines, but also to understand quickly any further tech-
nology developments for future enhanced biophotonic developments.
The background required to study the book is that of typical senior-level engi-
neering students. This background includes introductory biology and chemistry,
calculus, and basic concepts of electromagnetics and optics as presented in a
freshman physics course. To assist readers in learning the material and applying it
to practical situations, 106 worked examples are given throughout the text. A col-
lection of 126 homework problems is included to test the readers’ comprehension
of the material covered, and to extend and elucidate the text.
The articles and bookscited asreferencesinthe text wereselectedfrom among
numerous texts and thousands of papers in the literature relating to the material
covered in each chapter. Because biophotonics brings together research, develop-
ment, and application efforts from many different scientific, medical, and engi-
neeringdisciplines,thesereferencesareasmallsampleofthemajorcontributionsto
biophotonics. A number of these references are review and tutorial papers and
provide a starting point for delving deeper into any given topic.
Newton, MA, USA Gerd Keiser
Acknowledgments
Inpreparingthisbookonbiophotonics,Iamextremelygratefultothemanypeople
worldwidewithwhomIhadcountlessbeneficialdiscussionsandwhohelpedmein
manydifferentways.Thesepeoplearetoonumeroustomentionindividually,butI
truly appreciate their help. They include university professors, scientists, and
engineers in industry and researcher organizations, students, component and
equipment sales and marketing personnel, and the countless authors of journal
articleswhoinvestigatedandreportedondevelopmentsofthematerialinthisbook.
In addition, I would like to thank Loyola D’Silva of Springer for his assistance
andexpertguidance,togetherwiththeothereditorialandproductionteammembers
ofSpringer,toproducethebook.Asafinalpersonalnote,Iamgratefultomywife
Ching-YunandmyfamilymembersNishla,Keith,Kai,andNeylafortheirpatience
and encouragement during the time I devoted to writing this book.
Newton, MA, USA Gerd Keiser
ix
Contents
1 Overview of Biophotonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 What Is Biophotonics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Diverse Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Biophotonic Spectral Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Light Absorption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 Decibel Notation for Signal Attenuation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 Structures of Biological Cells and Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.6.1 Macromolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6.2 Biological Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6.3 Mitochondria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6.4 Biological Tissues and Organs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2 Basic Principles of Light. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1 Lightwave Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1.1 Monochromatic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1.2 Pulsed Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2 Polarization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2.1 Linear Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2.2 Elliptical and Circular Polarization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3 Quantized Photon Energy and Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.4 Reflection and Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.4.1 Snells’ Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.4.2 The Fresnel Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.3 Diffuse Reflection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5 Interference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.6 Optical Coherence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.7 Lightwave-Molecular Dipole Interaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
xi
