Table Of ContentBIOMECHANICAL EVALUATION OF MOVEMENT
IN SPORT AND EXERCISE
Biomechanical Evaluation of Movement in Sport and Exercise offers a com-
prehensive and practical sourcebook for students, researchers and practitioners
involved in the quantitative evaluation of human movement in sport and
exercise.
This unique text sets out the key theories underlying biomechanical evaluation,
and explores the wide range of biomechanics laboratory equipment and
software that is now available. Advice concerning the most appropriate
selection of equipment for different types of analysis, as well as how to use
the equipment most effectively, is also offered.
The book includes coverage of:
• Measurement in the laboratory and in the field
• Motion analysis using video and on-line systems
• Measurement of force and pressure
• Measurement of muscle strength using isokinetic dynamometry
• Electromyography
• Computer simulation and modelling of human movement
• Data processing and data smoothing
• Research methodologies
Written and compiled by subject specialists, this authoritative resource provides
practical guidelines for students, academics and those providing scientific
support services in sport science and the exercise and health sciences.
Carl J. Payton is Senior Lecturer in Biomechanics at Manchester Metropolitan
University, UK. Roger M. Bartlett is Professor of Sports Biomechanics in the
School of Physical Education, University of Otago, New Zealand.
BIOMECHANICAL EVALUATION OF
MOVEMENT IN SPORT AND EXERCISE
The British Association of Sport and
Exercise Sciences Guidelines
Edited by Carl J. Payton and Roger M. Bartlett
First published 2008
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2007.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2008 Carl J. Payton and Roger M. Barlett, selection and editorial matter;
individual chapters, the contributors
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying
and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Biomechanical evaluation of movement in sport and exercise: the British
Association of Sport and Exercise Science guide / edited by Carl Payton and
Roger Bartlett.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-0-415-43468-3 (hardcover) – ISBN 978-0-415-43469-0 (softcover)
1. Human mechanics. 2. Exercise–Biomechanical aspects.
3. Sports–Biomechanical aspects. I. Payton, Carl. II. Bartlett, Roger.
III. British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences.
[DNLM: 1. Movement–physiology. 2. Biometry–methods.
3. Exercise–physiology. 4. Models, Statistical. WE 103 B6139 2007]
QP303.B557 2007
′
612.7 6–dc22 2007020521
ISBN 0-203-93575-6 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN10: 0-415-43468-8 (hbk)
ISBN10: 0-415-43469-6 (pbk)
ISBN10: 0-203-93575-6 (ebk)
ISBN13: 978-0-415-43468-3 (hbk)
ISBN13: 978-0-415-43469-0 (pbk)
ISBN13: 978-0-203-93575-0 (ebk)
CONTENTS
List of tables and figures vii
Notes on contributors xiii
1 Introduction 1
ROGER M. BARTLETT
2 Motion analysis using video 8
CARL J. PAYTON
3 Motion analysis using on-line systems 33
CLARE E. MILNER
4 Force and pressure measurement 53
ADRIAN LEES AND MARK LAKE
5 Surface electromyography 77
ADRIAN BURDEN
6 Isokinetic dynamometry 103
VASILIOS BALTZOPOULOS
7 Data processing and error estimation 129
JOHN H. CHALLIS
8 Research methods: sample size and variability effects on
statistical power 153
DAVID R. MULLINEAUX
9 Computer simulation modelling in sport 176
MAURICE R. YEADON AND MARK A. KING
vi CONTENTS
Appendix 1: The British Association of Sport and Exercise
Sciences–code of conduct 207
Appendix 2: On-line motion analysis system manufacturers and
their websites 213
Index 215
TABLES AND FIGURES
TABLES
5.1 Summary of amplifier characteristics for commercially
available electromyography systems 81
5.2 Summary of sensor characteristics for commercially
available electromyography systems 84
6.1 Summary of the range or limits of angular velocities and
moments under concentric and eccentric modes for the
most popular commercially available isokinetic
dynamometers, including manufacturer website
information 118
7.1 Ten measures of a reference length measured by a motion
analysis system throughout the calibrated volume 131
8.1 Research design, statistics and data factors affecting
statistical power 155
8.2 Statistical analyses available for quantifying variability and,
consequently coordination, in two or more trials, across
the entire cycle or as an overall measure for the entire
cycle. The examples relate to three trials of a healthy, male
participant running at 3 m s−1 (see Figures 8.1 to 8.7) 170
FIGURES
2.1 (a) High-speed video camera (Photron Fastcam Ultima
APX) capable of frame rates up to 2000 Hz at full
resolution (1024 × 1024 pixels); (b) Camera Processor unit 12
2.2 Apparent discrepancy in the lengths of two identical rods
when recorded using a camera-to-subject distance of 3 m
(image a) and 20 m (image b). Note that the rods are being
held shoulder width apart 19
viii TABLES AND FIGURES
2.3 Distortion of angles when movement occurs outside the
◦
plane of motion. The true value of angles A and B is 90
(image a). In image b, angle A appears to be greater than
◦ ′ ◦ ′
90 (A ) and angle B appears to be less than 90 (B ), as
the frame is no longer in the plane of motion 20
2.4 The effect of camera frame rate on the recording of a
football kick. At 50 Hz (top row) the foot is only seen in
contact with the ball for one image; at 250 Hz (middle
row) the foot remains in contact for four images; at
1000 Hz (bottom row) the foot is in contact for sixteen
images (not all shown) 23
2.5 Calibration frame (1.60 m × 1.91 m × 2.23 m) with 24
control points (Peak Performance Technologies Inc.) 25
2.6 Calibration frame (1.0 m × 1.5 m × 4.5 m) with 92 control
points (courtesy of Ross Sanders) 25
3.1 (a) The L-frame used in the static calibration of a motion
capture system and its relationship to the laboratory
reference frame; (b) The wand used in the dynamic
calibration 39
3.2 Marker sets used in on-line motion analysis: (a) Standard
clinical gait analysis marker set; (b) Cluster-based
marker set 43
3.3 Different ways of presenting the same multiple-trial
time-normalised kinematic data: (a) mean curve; (b) mean
± 1 standard deviation curves; (c) all individual curves.
The example shown is rear-foot motion during running 49
4.1 Force (or free body diagram) illustrating some of the forces
(contact, C, gravity, G and air resistance, AR) acting on
the runner 54
4.2 The force platform measurement variables 55
4.3 The three component load cells embedded at each corner
of the force platform 56
4.4 Typical force data for Fx, Fy, Fz, Ax, Az and My for a
running stride 63
4.5 Typical graphical representation of force variables (Fx, Fy,
Fz, Ax and Az). Note that My is not represented in this
format 65
4.6 Free body diagram of a person performing a vertical jump 67
4.7 Derived acceleration, velocity and displacement data for the
−2
vertical jump. Units: force (N); acceleration (m s ) × 70;
−1
velocity (m s ) × 700; displacement (m) × 1000 68
4.8 Plantar pressure distribution measurements inside two
soccer boots during landing from a maximal jump in the
same participant. Higher pressures under the ball of the
forefoot (towards the top of each pressure contour map),
where studs are located, are experienced while using
boot A 70
TABLES AND FIGURES ix
5.1 An EMG signal formed by adding (superimposing) 25
mathematically generated motor unit action potential
trains (from Basmajian and De Luca, 1985) 78
5.2 The influence of electrode location on EMG amplitude.
(a) Eight electrodes arranged in an array, with a 10 mm
spacing between each electrode. The lines (numbered 1
to 8) above the array indicate the different combinations of
electrodes that were used to make bi-polar recordings.
Inter-electrode distances are 10 mm for pairs 1, 2 and 3;
20 mm for pairs 4 and 5; 30 mm for pair 6; 40 mm for
pair 8; and 50 mm for pair 7. (b) EMGs recorded using the
array shown in (a) when placed on the skin overlying the
biceps brachii at 70 per cent of MVC (adapted by Enoka,
2002 from Merletti et al., 2001) 85
5.3 (Top) EMG signal amplitude and force during an
attempted constant-force contraction of the first dorsal
interosseus muscle. (Bottom) Power spectrum density of
the EMG signal at the beginning (a) and at the end (b) of
the constant force segment of the contraction (from
Basmajian and De Luca, 1985) 96
6.1 The application of a muscle force F (N) around the axis of
rotation (transmitted via the patellar tendon in this
example) with a position vector r relative to the origin.
This generates a muscle moment M (N m) that is equal to
the cross product (shown by the symbol ×) of the two
vectors (r and F). The shortest distance between the force
line of action and the axis of rotation is the moment arm
d(m). θ is the angle between r and F. M is also a vector
that is perpendicular to the plane formed by F and r
(coming out of the paper) and so it is depicted by a
circular arrow 104
6.2 Schematic simplified diagram of the main components of
an isokinetic dynamometer 106
6.3 Schematic simplified diagram of the feedback loop for the
control of the angular velocity by adjusting the resistive
moment applied by the braking mechanism of the
dynamometer. The resistive moment exerted against the
limb depends on whether the actual angular velocity of the
input arm is higher or lower compared to the user selected
target (pre-set) angular velocity 106
6.4 Free body diagrams of the dynamometer input arm (left)
and the segment (right) for a knee extension test. Muscle
strength is assessed by estimating the joint moment MJ
from the dynamometer measured moment MD 107
6.5 The definition of a moment (bending moment). Force
vector and moment are perpendicular to the long
structural axis 109
