Table Of Contentw.
N achtigall
Biological Mechanisms
of Attachment
The Comparative Morphology and
Bioengineering of Organs for Linkage,
Suction, and Adhesion
Translated by M. A. Biederman -Thorson
With 63 Plates comprising 721 Illustrations
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH 1974
Professor Dr. Wemer Nachtigall
Zoologisches Institut der Universităt des Saarlandes
D-6600 Saarbriicken, W. Germany
Marguerite A. Biederman-Thorson, Ph. D.
The Old Marlborough Arms, Combe
Oxford, England
ISBN 978-3-642-85777-5 ISBN 978-3-642-85775-1 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-85775-1
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Under § 54 of the German Copyright Law, where copies are made for other than private use,
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© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1974
Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York in 1974
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition 197 4
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number
73-17936.
Typesetting: Zechnersche Buchdruckerei, Speyer.
The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective Jaws and
regulations and therefore free for general use.
Preface
Bioengineering is the branch of biology which applies the methods
of engineering and physics to the study of biological phenomena,
and the vocabulary of technology to describe them. Particularly
with respect to the mechanics of movement and other physiological
processes, the advantages of this approach are obvious. But other
fields of study also reveal new insights when biotechnical research
methods are applied, and one of these is the comparative morphology
of biological structures. At the very least, description in technical
terms permits complete, concise organization of a field of research,
provides a means of describing biological forms in terms consistent
with their function, and aids in working out interpretations based
on structural design and functional anatomy.
It is from this point of view that the present book describes and
discusses, on a comparative basis, biological mechanisms of at
tachment. Although these are among the simplest biological
mechanisms, they are fascinating in their diversity. This presentation
is, in a way, an outgrowth of that encyclopedic drive which is
within every scientist. Over the years, whole libraries of books
have been scanned as a result of this general curiosity; the library
of the Munich Zoological Institute has proved a particularly
valuable source of information. This little book is a much ab
breviated distillation of the several thousand file cards which
resulted from this urge to collect. Despite the brevity of presentation,
its preparation-particularly the time-consuming organization of
the plates-has extended over years, in such moments as could be
spared from other work.
At a time when research and teaching concentrate more and more
on particular topics and examples, a collection such as this may
seem something of an anachronism. But it appears to me necessary
that the biologist recall from time to time how extraordinarily
varied are the possibilities which nature offers for solving any set
of problems. This compendium of facts is intended to contribute
to that end.
The text has been kept very concise; every important detail is
elucidated in an illustration. Although only a selection offundamen-
VI Preface
tal and typical structures is given, the collection amounts to no
fewer than 721 figures. It was quite impossible to redraw the illus
trations for this specialized work. Almost all of the pictures are
reproductions from the literature, which I have made over the
years. I thank the authors of these figures and the publishers of the
books and journals in which they appeared for permission to use
the reproductions in this collection. The sources of the figures are
summarized in Section 4. To find the original sources of the cor
responding descriptions in the text, compare the authors' names
in Section 4 with the References.
The figures are cited in the text in parentheses. Explanations of the
labels in the drawings, if not in the text, are to be found in the
legends.
I thank Dr. Biederman-Thorson for her critical and sensitive
translation of the German text, and Springer-Verlag for the most
attractive presentation of this book.
Winter 1973 W. Nachtigall
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . 1
1. Rigid, Permanent Attachments 3
1.1 Special Connecting Devices 3
1.2 Amorphous Bonding Material . 3
1.3 Softening and Re-hardening of Material. 6
1.4 Connection by Anchoring and Interlacing . 6
1.5 Interlocking. 12
1.5.1 Simple Joints. 12
1.5.2 Miter Joints 14
1.5.3 Rabbet Joints 14
1.5.4 Dovetail Joints. 18
1.5.5 Mortise Joints 18
1.5.6 Multiple Interlocks 21
2. Releasable Attachments 27
2.1 Connection of Two Complementary Parts. 27
2.1.1 Plug and Socket 27
2.1.2 Hook and Eye . 34
2.1.3 Snap Fasteners . 37
2.1.4 Multiple Connectors 41
2.2 Attachment by One Specialized Device 46
2.2.1 Clamps 47
2.2.1.1 Vises . 47
2.2.1.2 Split-sleeve Clamps. 47
2.2.1.3 Forceps. 51
2.2.2 Grippers 56
2.2.2.1 Nutcracker Type. 56
2.2.2.2 Four-jawed Grippers . 59
2.2.3 Hooks 59
2.2.3.1 Hooks for Special Substrates 59
2.2.3.2 Anchors 62
2.2.3.3 Multiple-hook Devices 65
2.2.4 Probabilistic Fasteners 68
2.2.4.1 Burr Principle . 68
VIII Contents
2.2.4.2 Comb Principle . . 73
2.2.4.3 Feather Principle. . 74
2.2.4.4 Microhook Principle 78
2.2.5 Expansion Fasteners . . 78
2.2.5.1 Distension Bulbs. 78
2.2.5.2 Spacers .... 79
2.2.5.3 Dilators . . . . 80
2.2.6 Attachment by Suction . 80
2.2.6.1 Simple Suction Cups 82
2.2.6.2 Double Suction Cups . 96
2.2.6.3 Multiple Suction Cups 98
2.2.6.4 Suction Plates. . . . 118
2.2.6.5 Locomotion Using Suction Attachment . 126
2.2.6.6 Suction Mechanisms for Particle and
Fluid Intake. . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2.2.6.7 Suction Tubules ........... 132
2.2.6.8 Suction Mechanisms for Aligning Two
Tubes . . . . . . . . . 134
2.2.7 Attachment by Glue . . . . . . 137
2.2.7.1 Basic Mechanism of Gluing 137
2.2.7.2 General Surface Stickiness. 138
2.2.7.3 Sticky Discs. . . . . . 140
2.2.7.4 Glue-producing Papillae . 141
2.2.7.5 Glue-producing Tubes . . 141
2.2.7.6 Sticky Surfaces for Prey Capture. 142
2.2.7.7 Sticky Threads. . . . . . . . . 144
2.2.7.8 Combined Glue-and-Hook Fasteners. 147
2.2.7.9 Sheets of Mucus . . . . . .. 148
2.2.7.10 Structures Formed from Hardened
Secretions . . . . . 148
2.2.8 Intermolecular Adhesion. . . 150
2.2.8.1 Simple Adhesive Surfaces. 151
2.2.8.2 Compound Structures 152
2.3 Coiled Connections . . . . 162
3. Epilogue. . . . . . 163
4. Sources of the Figures 165
References . . . . . . 169
Subject and Author Index. 183
Introduction
Of all the ways the connections of structural elements in engineering and biology
might be classified, our purposes will be well served by the two dichoto
mies "releasable/permanent" and "rigid/flexible". Taken in all combinations,
these specify four different kinds of coupling, illustrated below with common
technological applications:
Releasable Permanent
Rigid electrical plug and socket riveted plates of a ship's hull
Flexible tailor's hook and eye the hinge of a door
These four fundamentally distinct categories provide a framework for discussion
of analogous connecting mechanisms in animals and plants. In terms of the
biological counterparts, the hinge category is of course represented by the flexible
joints of the appendages of animals; these can take a great many different
forms, and since much has been written about them elsewhere they are not
treated in this book. Moreover, the two "releasable" categories are difficult
to distinguish from one another where biological structures are concerned, since
the elasticity of the materials involved makes the notions "rigid" and "flexible"
quite relative. Therefore the many kinds of releasable connections are grouped
here under a single main heading.
1. Rigid, Permanent Attachments
This category comprises many techniques: soft soldering, hard soldering, welding,
gluing, mortaring, grouting, puttying, sewing, folding, splicing, tying, weaving,
and attaching by means of screws, rivets, nails, tacks or pegs. All such methods
can be grouped loosely according to function under four headings. Connections
may be made
by means of special devices
by means of amorphous bonding material
by softening and re-hardening of material
by anchoring, interlacing, and interlocking.
Special connecting devices include screws, rivets, pins, and thread. Examples
from the second group are soldering, gluing, and mortaring. In the third category,
additional material, identical or similar to that of the parts to be joined, can
be used; such methods include metal welding, thermal welding of plastics, and
bonding of plastics by solvents. The last group, which consists of anchoring,
rooting, tying, folding, and interlocking joints like those used in carpentry,
is special in that neither a softening of the material nor any sort of additional
connecting element need be used.
1.1 Special Connecting Devices
In nature this type of attachment does not occur. Never are two structural
parts held together by a third, entirely different one corresponding to the nail
or the screw. On the other hand, attachment by means of amorphous bonding
material occurs quite commonly.
1.2 Amorphous Bonding Material
In general, the description of biological attachments as "rigid-permanent" should
be viewed as somewhat less absolute than the same term in engineering. Reinforced
concrete is made by pouring the concrete around an iron framework so as
to embed it immovably and non-removably, but such a bond is "immobile"
only under normal use and from the ordinary macroscopic point of view. Micros
copically small displacements can occur, and an earthquake can destroy the
connection and free the steel. The above term, then, applies only in the ordinary
Description:Bioengineering is the branch of biology which applies the methods of engineering and physics to the study of biological phenomena, and the vocabulary of technology to describe them. Particularly with respect to the mechanics of movement and other physiological processes, the advantages of this appro
