Table Of ContentBiological Effects and Physics
of Solar and Galactic
Cosmic Radiation
Part B
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Biological Effects and Physics
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Cosmic Radiation
Part B
Edited by
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DLR Institut e of Aerospac e Medicine
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and
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NASA-Goddar d Space Flight Center
Greenbelt, Maryland
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Proceedings of a NATO Advanced Study Institute on
Biological Effects and Physics of Solar and Galactic Cosmic Radiation,
held October 13-23, 1991,
in Algarve, Portugal
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Biologica l effect s and physic s of sola r and galacti c cosmic
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"Proceedings of a NATO Advanced Study Institut e on Biologica l
Effect s and Physics of Solar and Galacti c Cosmic Radiation , hel d
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1. Cosmic rays—Physiological effect—Congresses. 2. Solar
radiation—Physiologica l effect—Congresses. 3. Radiatio n
dosimetry—Congresse.s 4..Oute r space—Exploration—Health aspects-
-Congresses. I . Swenberg, Charles E. II . Horneck, G. (Gerda)
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PREFACE
Space missions subject human beings or any other target of a spacecraft to a radiation
environment of an intensity and composition not available on earth. Whereas for missions in
low earth orbit (LEO), such as those using the Space Shuttle or Space Station scenario,
radiation exposure guidelines have been developed and have been adopted by spacefaring
agencies, for exploratory class missions that will take the space travellers outside the
protective confines of the geomagnetic field sufficient guidelines for radiation protection are
still outstanding. For a piloted Mars mission, the whole concept of radiation protection needs
to be reconsidered. Since there is an increasing interest of many nations and space agencies in
establishing a lunar base and lor exploring Mars by manned missions, it is both, timely and
important to develop appropriate risk estimates and radiation protection guidelines which will
have an influence on the design and structure of space vehicles and habitation areas of the
extraterrestrial settlements.
This book is the result of a multidisciplinary effort to assess the state of art in our
knowledge on the radiation situation during deep space missions and on the impact of this
complex radiation environment on the space traveller. It comprises the lectures by the faculty
members as well as short contributions by the students given at the NATO Advanced Study
Institute "Biological Effects and Physics of Solar and Galactic Cosmic Radiation" held in
Armacao de Pera, Portugal, 12-23 October, 1991. The following scientists served on the
Organizing Committee:
C. E. Swenberg, Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute, Bethesda,
Maryland, USA
G. Horneck, Deutsche Forschungsanstalt fUr Luft- und Raumfahrt, Koln, Germany
E.G. Stassinopoulos, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland,
USA
P.D. McCormack, US Naval Medical Center, Washington D.C., USA
The participants, coming from various countries including Russia, Ukraine,
Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria are listed at the end of this book. The event is in many respects a
sequel to the NATO Advanced Study Institute "Terrestrial Space Radiation and its Biological
Effects", Corfu, Greece, October 1987, which was mainly concerned with radiation problems
for manned missions in Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
During this meeting, it was emphasised that in order to safeguard future human
enterprises in space, especially those of very long duration or beyond our geomagnetic shield,
an intense research program has to be initiated. The program objectives should include:
(1) with respect to the radiation environment in deep space missions: development of a
better physical model of the galactic cosmic radiation modulation as a function of solar cycle
observables; development of models of HZE particles propagation in the interplanetary
medium; a better understanding on the periodicity (magnitude, duration) of a solar cycle, in
order to make a prediction several years in advance; a standardized approach on an
v
international scale for predicting/forecasting solar flares that give rise to proton events and an
efficient warning system; microdosimetric approaches in future development of space
dosimetry; determination of the dose contributing products as a function of shielding; testing
of new space technologies with respect to their vulnerability to space radiation;
(2) with respect to biological responses to the radiation in space: selection of appropriate
biological test systems for radiobiological space experiments in order to quantify and qualify
various long-term biological radiation effects; analysis of the biological responses to single
particle traversals; development of biological dosimeters; a better understanding of the
radiobiological chain of events as a function of radiation characteristics from the initial
interactions altering the essential chemical processes, such as DNA strand breaks to the
biological response, e.g. cellular lethality, mutagenesis, transformation; investigation of
transeffects, i. e. radiation lesions in the DNA that may lead to changes at remote sites;
development of radiobiological models appropriate for determining biological effects of HZE
particles; international cooperation in the analysis of radiation effects in higher organisms and
humans including data obtained in space;
(3) with respect to risk estimates for deep space missions: development of new and more
appropriate concepts to quantitate the radiation risk in space missions; development of
shielding concepts; development of countermeasures including radioprotectants, nutritional
supplements; determination of the radiation tolerances of different individuals.
This list is by no means complete. It reflects the need for a long-term program where
ground based studies will be augmented by flight experiments, especially in high inclination
orbits or on precursor missions to Moon and Mars. It was considered to be extremely
important to reach a standardisation on an international level with respect to data collection,
protocol comparison and formulation of guidelines for future exploratory class missions.
The committee is most grateful to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization for the
outstanding support provided for this meeting and for the production of this monograph. It
also acknowledges substantial financial support provided by German Aerospace Research
Establishment DLR, The US Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute, Bethesda MD,
the US Department of Energy, and the Committee on Interagency Radiation Research and
Policy Coordination in cooperation with Oak Ridge Associated Universities. We thank Lisa
Steimel for her valuable and efficient assistance in assuring that the meeting was truly
successful. The editors acknowledge the advise and guidance of Mr. Gregory Safford of
Plenum Press and the assistance of Dr. Mei-Lie Swenberg in typing and reorganizing the
manuscripts to the final version.
Charles E. Swenberg
Gerda Horneck
E. G. Stassinopoulos
vi
CONTENTS
RADIATION ENVIRONMENT, DOSIMETRY, SHIELDING EFFECTS
Radiation Environment during the Long Space Mission
(Mars) due to Galactic Cosmic Rays .... 1
N. F Pissarenko
Influence of the Geomagnetic Field and of the Solar
Activity Cycle on the Cosmic Ray Energy Spectrum 15
R. Beaujean
History of Energetic Solar Protons for the Past Three Solar Cycles
Including Cycle 22 Update . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
M. A. Shea and D. F Smart
Origins and Effects of Solar Flares 73
D. M. Rust
Prediction of Solar Particle Events for Exploration Class Missions 89
G. Heckman
Predicting and Modeling Solar Flare Generated Proton Fluxes in
the Inner Heliosphere . . . . . . . . . . . 101
D. F Smart and M. A. Shea
Solar Energy and Its Interaction with Earth's Atmosphere 119
Y. Tulunay
Space Radiation Dosimetry 135
FA. Hanser and B. K. Dichter
Time Resolving Detector Systems for Radiobiological Investigations
of Effects of Single Heavy Ions ...... . . . . 153
J. U. Schott
Microdosimetry in Space Using Microelectronic Circuits 165
P. J. McNulty, D. R. Roth, W. J. Beauvais,
W. G. Abdel-Kader and E. G. Stassinopoulos
Heavy-Ion Fragmentation Studies in Thick Water Absorbers 181
M. R. Shavers, J. Miller, W. Schimmerling,
J. W. Wilson and L. W. Townsend
Transport Methods and Interactions for Space Radiations ..... . 187
J. W. Wilson, L. W. Townsend, W. Schimmerling, G.S. Khandelwal,
F Khan, J.E. Nealy, FA. Cucinotta and J.W. Norbury
vii
HZE Reactions and Data-Base Development . . . . 787
L. W. Townsend, F. A. Cucinotta and J. W. Wilson
Plans for a New Ground Based Space Radiation Research Facility
in the USA ................ . 811
P. Thieberger
RADIATION EXPOSURE IN MANNED SPACE FLIGHT, RISK
ESTIMATES, PROTECTION
Relating Space Radiation Environments to Risk Estimates 817
S. B. Curtis
Solar Particle Dose Rate Buildup and Distribution in Critical Body Organs 831
W. Atwell, M. D. Weyland and L. C. Simonsen
Numerical Simulation of 'DMSP' Dosimeter Response 845
T. M. Jordan
The Relative Biological Effectiveness of Attenuated Protons . . . . . . . 853
J. B. Robertson, W. C. Glisson, J. o. Archambeau, G. B. Coutrakan,
D. W. Miller, M. F. Moyers, J. F. Siebers, J. M. Slater and J. F. Dicello
Radiation: What Determines the Risk? 859
R. E. J. Mitchel and A. Trivedi
Radiation Protection for Human Interplanetary Spaceflight and Planetary
Surface Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
B. C. Clark
Experience, Lessons Learned and Methodology in the Design of Space Systems
to Accommodate Total Dose and SEU Effects . . . . . . . . .. 889
J. H. Trainor
Radiological Operational Scenario for a Permanent Lunar Base 905
P. D. McCormack
Space Radiation Issues within the Space Exploration Initiative (SEI) 917
T. E. Ward
Participants 925
Glossary 929
Index 935
viii
RADIATION ENVIRONMENT DURING THE LONG SPACE MISSION (MARS)
DUE TO GALACTIC COSMIC RAYS
N.F. Pissarenko
Space Research Institute
Moscow, 117810, USSR
ABSTRACT
Galactic cosmic radiation {GCR} mostly determines dose equivalents inside the spacecraft
during long-term manned missions in space. In this paper some new results are collected
concerning different characteristics of GCR's. Together with earlier obtained data they show that
during most part of the solar cycle such spaceflights are not possible. Attention is drawn to very
great errors in the estimates of dose equivalent and shielding thickness.
GALACTIC COSMIC RADIATION
The galactic cosmic radiation (GCR) is one of the main factors which determine the
radiation situation during long-term (longer than one year) manned space missions. Energetic
charged particles of galactic and extragalactic origin observed in the interplanetary medium are
called galactic cosmic rays. Observations show that inside a spacecraft this radiation can be
assumed to be isotropic, in practice, though due to the presence of the magnetic field of solar
origin in the he1iosphere there is some weak anisotropy of GCR towards the Sun which does not
exceed several percent of their total flux.
Galactic cosmic rays are characterized by a wide energy spectrum from several tens of
MeV to 1020 eV, and even greater. The GCR integral flux with E > 30 MeV observed in the
interplanetary medium near the Earth (inside our heliosphere) depends on the place in the solar
= =
activity cycle being during minimum-activity years equal to N 4.5 partecm·2 s·' and N 2
partecm·2es·' during maximum-activity years. This galactic radiation intensity modulation in the
near~earth space is caused by the 11-year solar activity cycle (see Fig. 1; Mavromishalaki et al,
1989). The solar activity cycle is characterized by the variation of the solar spot number (Wolf
numbers) and by the appearance of different forms of the solar activity mainly associated with
the amplification of local magnetic fields in the photosphere and atmosphere of the Sun (active
regions, flares, transients and so on).
The GCR consists of 83% protons, 13% a-particles, and about 1% nuclei with Z>2; the
electron component is about 3% of the total flux. It should be noted that electrons with energy
E < 20 Me V are mostly of Jupiter origin. Table 1 (Smart and Shea, 1985) illustrates in detail
the composition of galactic cosmic rays. GCR nuclei with Z>2 are classified as several charge
groups: L-(light nuclei, 3<Z<5), M-(medium nuclei,6<Z<8), LM- (semi-heavy nuclei, 9<Z<14),
Biological Effects and Physics of Solar and Galactic Cosmic Radiation,
Part B, Edited by C.E. Swenberg et al., Plenum Press, New Yom, 1993
H- (heavy nuclei, 15<Z<19), and vH- (very heavy nuclei, 20<Z<28). Often the charge group
= =
from manganese (Mn, Z 25) to nickel (Ni, Z 27) is called the iron group.
According to L.I. Dorman (1977) the GCR nucleon spectrum observed in the quiet time
(i.e., in absence of flares and Forbush decreases) can be subdivided into five intervals:
'", 200 1000
/ +
I
_ 0.2 /7', "
a~...
.2:- I 'c> J, 0\
.~ 0.4 \' xl/ J (.. . "j
~ ~."
". 100 500
~
0.6 l i i
.~
50 250
8 0.8 /':-'" 20th cycle
.,'
l /'
1.0 a 0
65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85
Years
Fig, 1 Neutron monitor data. sunspot number and solar flares during the 20 and 21 solar cycles.
Table 1 Composition of Galactic Cosmic Rays
10115 Z Group Abundance for E) 450 MeV INuc.
He 2 Ct 44700 ± 500
Li 3 1921:4
Be 4 L 94 ±2.5
B 5 329±5
C 6 1130± 12
N 7 M 278 ±S
0 8 1000
F 9 24 ± 1.5
Ne 10 158± 3
Na II LH 29± 1.5
Mg 12 203± 3
AI 13 36 ± 1.5
Si 14 141 ± 3
p 15 7.5:!: 0.6
S 16 34 ± 1.5
CI 17 H 9.0 ± 0.6
Ar 18 14.2±0.9
K 19 10.1 ± 0.7
Ca 20 26 ± 1.3
Sc 21 6.3 ± 0.6
Ti 22 vH 14.1 ±0.9
V 23 9.5 ± 0.7
Cr 24 15.1 ±0.9
---------- ---------- -------------- -----------------------------------
Mn 25 11.6± 1.0
Fe 26 Fe 103 ±2.5
Ni 27 5.6 ±0.6
2
