Biofuels from Algae

339 Pages·2014·20.167 MB·English

by  Ashok Pandey, Duu-Jong Lee, Yusuf Chisti and Carlos R Soccol (Eds.)

BIOFUELS FROM ALGAE
BIOFUELS FROM
ALGAE
EditedBy
A P
SHOK ANDEY
CouncilofScientificandIndustrialResearch–NationalInstituteforInterdisciplinaryScienceandTechnology,
Trivandrum-695019,India
D -J L
UU ONG EE
DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,NationalTaiwanUniversity,Taipei,Taiwan106
Y C
USUF HISTI
InstituteofTechnologyandEngineering,MasseyUniversity,PrivateBag11222,
PalmerstonNorth,NewZealand
C R S
ARLOS OCCOL
BiotechnologyDivision,FederalUniversityofParana,CEP81531-970Curitiba-PR,Brazil
AMSTERDAM (cid:129) BOSTON (cid:129) HEIDELBERG (cid:129) LONDON (cid:129) NEW YORK (cid:129) OXFORD
PARIS (cid:129) SAN DIEGO (cid:129) SAN FRANCISCO (cid:129) SINGAPORE (cid:129) SYDNEY (cid:129) TOKYO
Elsevier
30CorporateDrive,Suite400,Burlington,MA01803,USA
525BStreet,Suite1800,SanDiego,CA92101-4495,USA
Firstedition2014
Copyright#2014ElsevierB.V.Allrightsreserved.
Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemortransmittedin
anyformorbyanymeanselectronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise
withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthepublisher.
PermissionsmaybesoughtdirectlyfromElsevier’sScience&TechnologyRights
DepartmentinOxford,UK:phone(þ44)(0)1865843830;fax(þ44)(0)1865853333;
email:[e-mail]tyourrequestonlineby
visitingtheElsevierwebsiteathttp://elsevier.com/locate/permissions,andselecting
ObtainingpermissiontouseElseviermaterial
Notice
Noresponsibilityisassumedbythepublisherforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsor
propertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseor
operationofanymethods,products,instructionsorideascontainedinthematerialherein.
Becauseofrapidadvancesinthemedicalsciences,inparticular,independentverificationof
diagnosesanddrugdosagesshouldbemade.
BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress
ForinformationonallElsevierpublications
visitourwebsiteatstore.elsevier.com
PrintedandboundinGreatBritain
13 14 15 16 17 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN:978-0-444-59558-4
Contributors
F.G. Acie´n Department of Chemical Engineer- Jorge Alberto Vieira Costa Laboratory of Bio-
ing, University of Almer´ıa, Can˜ada San chemical Engineering, College of Chemistry
Urbano,E-04120-Almer´ıa,Spain and Food Engineering, Federal University
HelenaM. Amaro CIIMAR/CIMAR -Interdis- of Rio Grande, P.O. Box 474, Rio Grande,
RS,96200-970,Brazil
ciplinaryCentreofMarineandEnvironmental
Research,UniversityofPorto,RuadosBragas, CarlosJose´DalmasNeto OurofinoAgronego´cio,
P-4050-123 Porto, Portugal; ICBAS - Institute Rodovia Anhanguera SP 330, Km 298
of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar, Rua de Distrito Industrial, CEP 14140-000 Cravinhos,
JorgeViterboFerreirano.228,P-4050-313Porto, SP,Brazil
Portugal Julio Cesar de Carvalho Biotechnology Divi-
Ricardo Assmann Ourofino Agronego´cio, sion, Federal University of Parana, CEP
Rodovia Anhanguera SP 330, Km 298 Distrito 81531-970Curitiba-PR,Brazil
Industrial,CEP14140-000Cravinhos,SP,Brazil MicheleGrequedeMorais Laboratory of Bio-
Bhavya Balagurumurthy Biofuels Division, chemical Engineering, College of Chemistry
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research- and Food Engineering, Federal University of
Indian Institute of Petroleum, Dehradun-248 Rio Grande, P.O. Box 474, Rio Grande, RS,
005,India 96200-970, Brazil
OlivierBernard INRIABIOCORE,BP93,06902 M.PrathimaDevi BioengineeringandEnviron-
SophiaAntipolisCedex,France mentalCenter,CouncilofScientificandIndus-
ThalladaBhaskar BiofuelsDivision,Councilof trial Research-Indian Institute of Chemical
ScientificandIndustrialResearch-IndianInsti- Technology,Hyderabad,500607,India
tuteofPetroleum,Dehradun-248005,India Su-Chiung Fang Biotechnology Center in
Rashmi Chandra Bioengineering and Environ- SouthernTaiwan,AcademiaSinicaAgricultural
mentalCenter,CouncilofScientificandIndus- Biotechnology Research Center, Academia
trial Research-Indian Institute of Chemical Sinica No. 59, Siraya Blvd. Xinshi Dist. Tainan
Technology,Hyderabad,500607,India 74145,TaiwanR.O.C.
Jo-Shu Chang Department of Chemical Engi- J.M. Ferna´ndez Department of Chemical Engi-
neering, National Cheng Kung University, neering, University of Almer´ıa, Can˜ada San
Tainan,Taiwan Urbano,E-04120-Almer´ıa,Spain
Chun-YenChen CenterforBioscienceandBio- A. Catarina Guedes CIIMAR/CIMAR - Inter-
technology, National Cheng Kung University, disciplinary Centre of Marine and Environ-
Tainan,Taiwan mentalResearch,UniversityofPorto,Ruados
Feng Chen Institute for Food & Bioresource Bragas, P-4050-123Porto,Portugal
Engineering, College of Engineering, Peking Arnaud He´lias INRA UR0050, Laboratoire de
University,Beijing,China
Biotechnologie de l’Environnement, Avenue
Pierre Collet INRA UR0050, Laboratoire de des Etangs, 11000 Narbonne, France;
Biotechnologie de l’Environnement, Avenue Montpellier SupAgro, 2 place Pierre Viala
desEtangs,11000Narbonne,France 34060Montpellier,France
ix
x
CONTRIBUTORS
I-Chen Hu Far East Bio-Tec Co. Ltd., Taipei, Kuan-YeowShow DepartmentofEnvironmen-
Taiwan, Far East Microalgae Ind Co. Ltd., talScienceandEngineering,FudanUniversity,
Ping-Tung,Taiwan Shanghai,China
ManKeeLam SchoolofChemicalEngineering, Rawel Singh Biofuels Division, Council of Sci-
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Engineering Cam- entific and Industrial Research-Indian
pus, Seri Ampangan, 14300 Nibong Tebal, InstituteofPetroleum,Dehradun-248005,India
PulauPinang,Malaysia Carlos Ricardo Soccol Department of
Laurent Lardon INRA UR0050, Laboratoire de Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology,
Biotechnologie de l’Environnement, Avenue Federal University of Parana´, 81531-990
desEtangs,11000Narbonne,France Curitiba-Pr, Brazil; Biotechnology Division,
Duu-Jong Lee Department of Chemical Engi- Federal University of Parana, CEP 81531-970
Curitiba-PR,Brazil
neering, National Taiwan University, Taipei,
Taiwan106 IsabelSousa-Pinto CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdis-
Keat Teong Lee School of Chemical Engineer- ciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental
Research, University ofPorto,Rua dos Bragas,
ing, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Engineering
P-4050-123 Porto, Portugal; Department of
Campus,SeriAmpangan,14300NibongTebal,
Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of
PulauPinang,Malaysia
Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, s/n, 4050 Porto,
Jin Liu Institute of Marine and Environmental
Portugal
Technology, University of Maryland Center
DanieleSpinelli DepartmentofChemistryand
for Environmental Science, Baltimore, MD,
Center for Complex System Investigation,
USA
University of Siena, Via Alcide de Gasperi 2,
F.XavierMalcata CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisci-
53100Siena,Italy
plinary Centre of Marine and Environmental
Jean-PhilippeSteyer INRAUR0050,Laboratoire
Research,UniversityofPorto,RuadosBragas,
deBiotechnologiedel’Environnement,Avenue
P-4050-123 Porto, Portugal; Department of
desEtangs,11000Narbonne,France
Chemical Engineering, University of Porto,
Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s/n P-4200-465 Porto, G. Venkata Subhash Bioengineering and
Portugal Environmental Center, Council of Scientific
S. Venkata Mohan Bioengineering and Envi- and Industrial Research-Indian Institute of
Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, 500 607,
ronmentalCenter,CouncilofScientificandIn-
India
dustrial Research-Indian Institute of Chemical
Technology,Hyderabad,500607,India ZhengSun SchoolofEnergyandEnvironment,
E. Molina-Grima Department of Chemical CityUniversityofHongKong,China
Engineering, University of Almer´ıa, Can˜ada Eduardo Bittencourt Sydney Department of
SanUrbano,E-04120-Almer´ıa,Spain Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology,
DolivarCoraucci Neto Ourofino Agronego´cio, Federal University of Parana´, 81531-990
Rodovia Anhanguera SP 330, Km 298 Distrito Curitiba-Pr, Brazil; Biotechnology Division,
Industrial, CEP 14140-000 Cravinhos, SP, Federal University of Parana, CEP 81531-970
Brazil Curitiba-PR,Brazil
Alessandra Cristine Novak Biotechnology Hong-Wei Yen Department of Chemical and
Division, Federal University of Parana, CEP Materials Engineering, Tunghai University,
81531-970Curitiba-PR,Brazil Taichung,Taiwan
Preface
This book is about biofuels from Achapterisdevotedtoheterotrophicproduc-
microalgae.Microalgaehavebeenusedcom- tionofalgaloilsaspotentialfuels.Production
merciallyfordecades,butnotforproducing of fuels via fast pyrolysis of algal biomass
biofuels. Interest in algal fuels has seen a is treated in some detail. An overview is
spectacular reawakening within the last providedofalgaloilsasfuelsinonechapter.
10-years. Several factors are driving the Achapterconsidersproductionofbiohydro-
renewedquestforalgalfuels:Concernabout genfrommicroalgae.Anyproductionofalgal
depletionofpetroleum;thedesireforenergy fuels must consider the fate of the spent
independence; the need for carbon neutral biomass. This is discussed in one chapter.
renewable fuels that can be produced with- A chapter is focused on the hydrothermal
out compromising the supply of food and treatmentofalgalbiomasstoproducehydro-
freshwater; and the need to prevent further carbonfuels.Scale-upofproductionandcom-
deforestation. Algal fuels are not yet com- mercialization aspects of algal fuels are
mercial and may not reach the market for examinedinonechapter.Achapterdiscusses
long time or near-future. Nevertheless, they the life-cycle assessment of algal fuels.
represent a strategic opportunity that must Changesintechnologyinthisrapidlydevelop-
be persistently developed into a renewable ing field are bound to greatly diminish the
and environmentally sustainable source of environmental impact of future algal fuel
high-energy densityliquidfuels. production.Finally,achapterassessesinsome
Thepresentbook,whichisthethirdbook depth the economics of microalgal biomass
intheseriesonBIOMASSbeingpublishedby production. Continuing developments will
us, presents up-to-date state-of-art informa- surely reduce the cost of producing algal
tion and knowledge by the internationally fuelsinthefuture.
recognizedexpertsandsubjectpeersinvar- The book would be of special interest to
ious areas of algal biofuels. The 14 chapters the post-graduate students and researchers
of the book attempt to address many of ofappliedbiology,biotechnology,microbiol-
thekeyissuesrelatingtoalgalbiofuels.Algal ogy, biochemical and chemical engineers
culture systems – open ponds as well as workingonalgalbiofuels.Itisexpectedthat
the closed photobioreactors – are discussed. the current discourse on biofuels R&D
Genetic and metabolic engineering of algae would go a long way in bringing out the
for enhanced capabilities in production of exciting technological possibilities and ush-
fuelsareexamined.Aspectsofcarbonfixation ering the readers towards the frontiers of
in industrially important microalgae are knowledge in the area of biofuels and this
discussed. Technologies for recovering the book will be helpful in achieving this dis-
biomass from the culture brothare assessed. course for algal biofuels.
xi
xii
PREFACE
We thank authors of all the articles for andDrAnitaKochandtheteamofElsevier
theircooperationandalsofortheirprepared- for their cooperation and efforts in produc-
ness in revising the manuscripts in a time- ing this book.
framed manner. We also acknowledge the
helpfromthereviewers,whoinspiteoftheir Ashok Pandey
busy professional activities, helped us by Duu-Jong Lee
evaluating the manuscripts and gave their YusufChisti
criticalinputstorefineandimprovethearti- Carlos Ricardo Soccol
cles.WewarmlythankDrMarinakisKostas Editors
C H A P T E R
1
An Open Pond System for
Microalgal Cultivation
Jorge Alberto Vieira Costa* and Michele Greque de Morais
*Laboratory of BiochemicalEngineering,College ofChemistry and Food Engineering,
Federal University ofRio Grande, RioGrande, RS, Brazil
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Microalgalbiotechnology hasemergedduetothegreatdiversityofproductsthat canbe
developedfrombiomass.Microalgalbiomasshasbeenindustriallyappliedinareassuchas
dietary supplements, lipids, biomasses, biopolymers, pigments, biofertilizers, and biofuels.
Toproducethesecompounds,microalgaecanbegrownusingcarbondioxideandindustrial
wastes,whichreducesthecostofculturemediumnutrientsandalleviatestheenvironmental
problemscausedbytheseeffluents.However,thehighcostofproductionofmicroalgalbio-
mass(comparedtoagriculturalandforestrybiomasses)isoneofthemajorbarriersthatmust
beovercome in order for their industrial production to beviable.
Althougheffortshavebeendirectedattheoptimizationofthemediumandprocesses,the
developmentofcultivationsystemsthatarecost-effectiveandhighlyefficientmustbesignif-
icantly improved for large-scale production to be viable (Wang et al., 2012; Wang and
Lan,2011).Microalgalcultivationonalargescalehasbeen studiedfor decades(Lee,2001).
The first unialgal cultivation was carried out with the microalga Chlorella vulgaris by
Beijerinckin1890,whowantedtostudythephysiologyoftheplants(Borowitzka,1999).Dur-
ingWorldWarII,Germany,usingopenponds,increasedalgalcultivationforuseasafood
supplement.Withtheonsetofindustrialization,somestudygroupsattheCarnegieInstitute
in Washington, D.C., implemented algae cultures for carbon dioxide biofixation. In 1970
Eastern Europe, Israel, and Japan began commercial production of algae in open ponds to
produce healthy foods(Ugwuet al., 2008).
Openpondcultivationsystemsarethemostindustriallyappliedbecauseoftheirlowcost
of investment and operational capital. This system’s major difficulties are the control of
BiofuelsfromAlgae 1 #2014ElsevierB.V.Allrightsreserved.
2
1. ANOPENPONDSYSTEMFORMICROALGALCULTIVATION
operatingconditions,whichcancauselowbiomassproductivity,andthecontrolofcontam-
inants, whichcan be excludedby usinghighly selective species(Shu and Lee,2003).
Comparedtoopenponds,closedphotobioreactorsmayhaveincreasedphotosyntheticef-
ficiency and higher production of biomass (Wang et al., 2012). However, closed
photobioreactors have a high initial cost, and only microalgal strains with specific physiol-
ogies may be used (Harun et al., 2010), which is why different types of closed
photobioreactors have been developedin recent decades(Wang et al., 2012).
Theobjectiveofthisstudywastopresenttheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofopenponds
comparedtootherphotobioreactorsaswellastoexaminefactorsthataffecttheculturesand
the bioproducts obtained.
1.2 BIOTECHNOLOGY AND MICROALGAE
Biotechnology is a major interdisciplinary science, combining biology, chemistry, and
engineering and incorporating and integrating knowledge from the areas of microbiology,
genetics,chemistry,biochemistry,andbiochemicalengineering.Thekeywordinthiscontext
is biotransformation.
Theapplication ofbiotechnology tomarineorganisms andprocessesisanareaofsignif-
icant industrial importance with ramifications in many areas, including human health, the
environment,energy,food,chemicals,materials,andbioindicators.Someareasofinterestre-
latedtomarinebiotechnologyincludetheunderstandingofgenetic,nutritional,andenviron-
mental factors that control the production of primary and secondary metabolites, based on
new or optimized products. Furthermore, there has been an emphasis on the identification
of bioactive compounds and their mechanisms of action for application in the medical and
chemicalindustry;therearealsobioremediationstrategiesforapplicationindamagedareas
andthedevelopmentofbioprocessesforsustainableindustrialtechnologies(Zaborsky,1999).
The cultivation of microalgae as part of biotechnology has received researcher attention.
The growth conditions and the bioreactors for cultivation have been thoroughly studied
(Borowitzka,1999).Theprinciplebehindcultivationofmicroalgaefortheproductionofbio-
mass is the use of photosynthesis (Vonshak, 1997), which involves using solar energy and
converting it into chemical energy.
Microalgaearephotosyntheticprokaryoticoreukaryoticmicroorganismsthatgrowrapidly
and have the ability to live in different environments due to their unicellular or simple
multicellularstructure.Examplesofprokaryoticmicroalgaearethecyanobacteria;greenal-
gaeanddiatoms are examplesof eukaryotics (Mata et al., 2010).
Cyanobacteriadifferentiateintovegetative,akinete,andheterocystcells.Thefunctionsof
vegetative, akinete, and heterocyst cells are their ability to carry oxygen in photosynthesis,
resistance to climactic conditions, and potential for nitrogen fixation, respectively. Green
algae have a defined nucleus, cell wall, chloroplasts containing chlorophyll and other pig-
ments, pirenoide, anda denseregion containing starchgranules, stigma, and scourge.
Microalgae exist in various ecosystems, both aquatic and terrestrial. More than 50,000
species are known and about 30,000 are studied (Mata et al., 2010). The main advantages
of microalgaecultivation as a biomasssource are (Vonshak, 1997):
(cid:129) They are biological systems with highcapacityto capture sunlight to produce organic
compounds via photosynthesis.
3
1.3 OPENPONDSYSTEMS
(cid:129) When subjected to physicalandchemical stress, theyareinduced to produce high
concentrationsof specific compounds, suchas proteins, lipids, carbohydrates,polymers,
andpigments.
(cid:129) They have a simple cellulardivisioncyclewithout asexualtypestage, enabling them to
completetheirdevelopmentcycleinafewhours.Thisenablesmorerapiddevelopmentin
production processescompared with other organisms.
(cid:129) Theydevelopinvariousenvironmentalconditionsofwater,temperature,salinity,andlight.
1.3 OPEN POND SYSTEMS
Underphototrophicgrowthconditions,microalgaeabsorbsolarenergyandassimilatecar-
bondioxidefromtheairandnutrientsfromaquatichabitats.However,commercialproduc-
tion must replicate and optimize the ideal conditions of natural growth. The choice of the
reactor isone of themainfactors that influencethe productivity of microalgal biomass.
Opentankscomeindifferentforms,suchasraceway,shallowbig,orcircular(Masojidek
and Torzillo, 2008). Circular ponds with a centrally pivoted rotating agitator are the oldest
large-scale algal culture systems and are based on similar ponds used in wastewater treat-
ment.Thedesignofthesesystemslimitspondsizetoabout10,000m2becauserelativelyeven
mixingbytherotatingarmisnolongerpossibleinlargerponds.Racewaytanksarethemost
widely used artificial systems of microalgal cultivation. They are typically constructed of a
closed loop and have oval-shaped recirculation channels. They are usually between 0.2
and 0.5m deep, and they are stirred with a paddlewheel to ensure the homogenization of
cultureinordertostabilizethealgalgrowthandproductivity.Racewaysmaybeconstructed
of concrete, glassfiber,or membrane (Brennan andOwende, 2010).
Compared to closed tanks, the raceway is the cheapest method of large-scale microalgal
production (Chisti, 2008). These tanks require only low power and are easy to maintain
and clean (Ugwuet al., 2008).
Theconstructionofopentanksislowcostandtheyareeasytooperate;however,itisdif-
ficult to control contamination, and only highly selective species are not contaminated by
other microalgae and microorganisms. Environmental variations have a direct influence,
and the maintenance of cell density is low due to shadowing of the cells (Amaro et al.,
2011). Light intensity, temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen concentration may limit the
growthparametersof open tanks (Harunet al., 2010).
Openphotobioreactorshaveloweryieldsthanclosedsystemsduetolossbyevaporation,
temperaturefluctuations,nutrientlimitation,lightlimitation,andinefficienthomogenization
(BrennanandOwende,2010).Theamountofevaporatedwatercanbeperiodicallyorcontin-
uously added to the raceway. The amount of evaporated water in raceways depends on
thetemperature,windvelocity,solarradiation,andpressureofwatervapor.Watercanalso
be lost during harvesting; however, recycling of the medium reduces this problem, and
nutrients from the culture medium can bereutilized(Handler et al., 2012).
Open ponds are the microalgal cultivation systemsthathave been studiedfor the longest
time. These reactors are used on an industrial scale by companies such as Sosa Texcoco,
Cyanotech,EarthriseFarm,ParryNutraceuticals,JapanSpirulina,FarEastMicroalga,Taiwan
Chlorella, Microbio Resource, Betatene, and Western Biotechnology (Spoalore et al., 2006).
Earthrise Farm began cultivation on a large scale in 1976 with Spirulina. Currently the