Bioenergy for Sustainability and Security

390 Pages·2019·12.28 MB·English

by  Basanta Kumara Behera

Basanta Kumara Behera
Ajit Varma
Bioenergy for
Sustainability
and Security
Bioenergy for Sustainability and Security
(cid:129)
Basanta Kumara Behera Ajit Varma
Bioenergy for Sustainability
and Security
BasantaKumaraBehera AjitVarma
AmityUniversity AmityUniversity
AmityInstituteofMicrobialTechnology AmityInstituteofMicrobialTechnology
Noida,UttarPradesh,India Noida,UttarPradesh,India
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Preface
Inthisbook,Drs.BeheraandVarmahighlighthowapolitically,economicallyand
environmentally volatile world is immensely in need of energy security as an
increasingly important consideration. Before going ahead in detail on green fuel
anditsapplicationforgettingsustainablerenewableenergy,theauthorshavedefined
energy securityin its true sense. In this respect,the past and presentglobal energy
scenario and need for additional energy budget to supplement the deficit for short-
termandlong-termenergyrequirementsforhumanactivityarediscussed.
In addition, it is also explained how the security of global energy supplies is in
greatdilemmaasoilandgasreservesareunderthedirectcontrolofasmallgroupof
nations,someofwhichareconsideredpoliticallyunstable.
As of 2016, 44% of the global oil production and 73% of world’s “proven” oil
reservesisconcentratedin14countries(membersofOPEC),therebygivingOPEC
thepowertoinfluenceglobaloilpriceswhichwereearliercontrolledbyAmerican-
dominatedmultinationaloilcompanies.
The second chapter focuses on cutting-edge technologies for the conversion of
lignocelluloses into biofuels and other products. It describes the most up-to-date
advances in biomass utilization systems through enzymatic hydrolysis. In this
connection,ithasbeenexplainedhowmajortechnologicalandcommercialbarriers
to scaling up sustainable technologies involve moving from batch processing to
continuousprocessing,atleastuptothestageofsugarproduction.
Biomassisalsoavailableinwasteformsuchassewagesludge,manure,industrial
waste water, animal waste, human excreta, domestic animal excreta and organic
fraction of municipal wastes. This book highlights the latest development in utili-
zation of these biowastes in commercial level to meet short- and long-term energy
demands.The thirdchapterreviews theup-to-date information on transformations,
stagesandmicroorganismsthatparticipateinmethanefermentationprocess.
By means of nonbiological methods, biomass and agriculture waste can be
convertedtogaseousandliquidfuels.Inthisconnection,theauthorshavereviewed
thelatestphysicochemicaltechniqueslikedirectcombustion,gasification,pyrolysis
andliquefaction.
v
vi Preface
One of the most interesting parts of this book is the explanation of some
sustainable and economical solutions to get partial relief from the present energy
shortage.Hence,ithasbeenexplainedhowweavailopportunitiestousesustainable
microbial resources for generating different energy carriers like hydrogen, ethanol,
dieseldirectlyfrommicroalgae,macroalgae,cyanobacteriaandfermentivebacteria.
Themostsignificantfactaboutmicrobialenergycarriersistheirlesscarbondioxide
emission property compared to conventional liquid fuels like petrol and diesel. In
this regard, the book highlights how hydrogen as pollutant-free energy carrier is
beingusedascompactenergysourceinfuelcellsandbatteries.Manycompaniesare
working hard to develop technologies that can efficiently exploit the potential of
hydrogenenergy.
Recent technology on bioethanol production, directly from marine microalgae,
has attracted a great deal of attention. The book describes how a megaproject on
commercialization of ethanol production from algae along with upstream and
downstreamprocessingequipmentandrelatedinfrastructurehasbeeninitiated.
Inordertoconvincethereaders,theauthorshavehighlightedthesalientfeatures
of biodiesel. It is simple to use, biodegradable, nontoxic and essentially free of
sulphurandaromatics.Themostinterestingpartofthebookisabouttheproduction
ofhydrogenfrommicroorganisms.Ithasbeenexplainedhowresearchisinprogress
to commercialize the production of hydrogen and electricity directly from
microalgaeandformativebacteria.
Microbial fuel cell (MFC) concept is an emerging technology to generate elec-
tricity,directly.Thisbookhighlightshowmicrobialfuelcells(MFCs)are“plug-in
andpower”devicesandconvertenergyharvestedfromredoxreactionsdirectlyinto
bioelectricity. In addition, it has also been described how great attention has been
paidtomicrobialfuelcells(MFCs)duetotheirmildoperatingconditionsandusing
avarietyofbiodegradablesubstratesasfuel.ThetraditionalMFCconsistedofanode
and cathode compartments, but there are single-chamber MFCs. Microorganisms
actively catabolize substrate, and bioelectricities are generated. MFCs could be
utilized as power generator in small devices such as biosensor. Also, this book
reveals the recent improvement of MFCs with summarization of their advantages
and possible future applications. Also, different key factors affecting bioelectricity
generationofMFCsarefullydiscussed.
Thisbookissystematizedinsuchawaytogiveacomprehensiveandsystematic
overviewongreenenergytobringfamiliarityamongreadersonsocialacceptability
ofdifferentoptionsonbiologicalrenewableenergy.
WearegreatlyindebtedtoMrs.AshaSharma,ShymbhaveeandKatyayaneefor
theirhelpincomputinganddrawingmodelsandcomputer-generatedgraphics.We
wouldalsoliketothankourrespectivefamilies,whospentmanylonelyhourswhile
wewerebusyinpreparingthemanuscript.
Thesupportfromthepublisherforthepreparationofthemanuscriptisalsohighly
acknowledged.
Noida,India BasantaKumaraBehera
AjitVarma
Contents
1 EnergySecurity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 RenewableEnergy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Non-renewableEnergy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 WhatIsEnergySecurity?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 GenesisofEnergySecurityFeeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 CausesofEnergyCrisis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.1 GeologicalRisksandOverconsumption. . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.2 PopulationandEnergyConsumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.3 TechnicalRisksandDeplorableInfrastructure. . . . . . . 14
1.4.4 UnawarenessofRenewableEnergy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.5 ImpedimentinDevelopingPowerPlants. . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.6 GasShortageforPowerSector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.7 NegligenceinProperUseofEnergy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.8 InefficiencyinEnergySupplyChain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.9 NaturalDisaster. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.10 WarsandAttacks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.11 NaturalResourceDepletion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.12 EconomicGrowth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.13 PoliticalInstability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.14 MiscellaneousFactors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.15 Cybersecurity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5 PossibleSolutionsoftheEnergyCrisis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5.1 MoveTowardsRenewableResources. . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5.2 BuyEnergy-EfficientProducts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5.3 LightingControls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5.4 EasierGridAccess. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.5.5 EnergySimulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.5.6 PerformEnergyAudit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.5.7 CommonStandonClimateChange. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
vii
viii Contents
1.5.8 BiowasteRecyclingforMethanolProduction. . . . . . . . 21
1.5.9 Useof“Flex-Fuel”inAutomobiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.6 QuantifyingEnergySecurity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.6.1 ModelofShort-TermEnergySecurity(MOSES). . . . . 23
1.6.2 TheLong-TermMeasuresinEnergy
Security(MOLES). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.6.3 EnergySecurityPolicy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.6.4 GlobalEnergySecurityStatus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.7 FossilFuelsvs.RenewableEnergy(RE). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.7.1 EnergyResources. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 43
1.7.2 ComparingCost:FossilFuelsvs.Renewable
Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.7.3 AdvantageandDisadvantage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.8 EnergySupplyChainManagement(ESCM). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.8.1 Electricity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.8.2 NaturalGasSupplyChainManagement(NGSM). . . . . 53
1.8.3 PetrolSupplyChainManagement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.9 GreenEnergyasReliableandResilientEnergySystem. . . . . . . . 60
1.9.1 IntegrationofBiorefinery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
1.9.2 ResilienceofMicrobialFuelCell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.9.3 ResilienceofMicroalgae. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1.10 WorldTowardsSustainableEnergy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.10.1 SolarPower. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.10.2 WindEnergy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.10.3 Bioenergy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.11 RenewableEnergyasEco-friendly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.11.1 BiodieselasEco-friendly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1.11.2 SolarEnergyasEco-friendly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1.11.3 WindPowerasEco-friendly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.12 InternationalOrganizationsforEnergy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1.12.1 InternationalEnergyAgency(IEA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1.12.2 EnergyRegulatorsRegionalAssociation(ERRA). . . . . 70
1.12.3 CouncilofEuropeanEnergyRegulators(CEER). . . . . 71
1.12.4 ASEANEnergyRegulators’Network(AERN). . . . . . . 71
1.12.5 InternationalEnergyRegulationNetwork(IERN). . . . . 72
1.12.6 InternationalConfederationofEnergy
Regulators(ICER). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1.12.7 InterstateOilandGasTransportationtoEurope
(INOGATE). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1.12.8 EnergyManagementWorkingGroup(EMWG). . . . . . 73
1.12.9 AssociationofEnergyEngineers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.12.10 WorldEnergyCouncil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Contents ix
2 Gasoline-LikeBiofuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.1 GenerationsofBiofuels. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . 82
2.1.1 First-GenerationBiofuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.1.2 Second-GenerationBiofuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.1.3 Third-GenerationofBiofuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.1.4 Fourth-GenerationBiofuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.2 BiologicalProcessforBiomassLiquefaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.2.1 SugarstoEthanolProcessing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.2.2 StarchtoEthanol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2.2.3 LignocellulosicBiomasstoEthanol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.3 CommercializationofBioethanolfromBiomass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3 Diesel-LikeBiofuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 159
3.1 Biodiesel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.1.1 ChemistryofDieselandBiodiesel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.1.2 BiodieselManufacturingProcess. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.1.3 CetaneRating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.1.4 ChemicalCompositionofBiodiesel. . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. 175
3.1.5 RawMaterials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
3.2 AlgalBiodiesel. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . 179
3.2.1 AdvantagesofAlgalBiofuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3.2.2 AlgaeBiodieselManufacturers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.2.3 ProductionProcess. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3.3 GreenDiesel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
3.3.1 GreenDieselManufacturingProcess. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
3.3.2 GreenDieselCommercialization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
4 GreenGaseousFuelTechnology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.1 BiogasGenerationTechnology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4.1.1 BiogasModules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4.1.2 BiogasGenerationSystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 215
4.1.3 BiogasUse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
4.1.4 BiogasCommercialization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
4.1.5 BiogasProjectFinance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.1.6 PlantSafety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.2 Biomethane. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
4.2.1 Biogas,BiomethaneandNaturalGas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
4.2.2 BiomethaneApplications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
4.2.3 HeatGeneration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
4.2.4 PurificationandUpgradingofBiogas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
x Contents
4.3 BiohydrogenasanEnergyCarrier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
4.3.1 BiologicalHydrogenProduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
4.3.2 PathwaystoCommercialization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
4.3.3 HydrogenPurification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
5 BioelectricityGeneration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
5.1 MicrobialFuelCell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 266
5.1.1 Nature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
5.1.2 TypesofMicrobesUsedinMFC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
5.1.3 FunctionofMicroorganisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
5.1.4 Mediatedvs.UnmediatedMFC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
5.2 ConstituentsofMFC. . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. 282
5.2.1 TypesofAnodeUsedinMFC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
5.2.2 TypesofCathodeUsedinMFC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
5.2.3 NatureofSemipermeableMembrane. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
5.3 BasicPrincipleofOperation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
5.4 Application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
5.4.1 GenerationofBioelectricity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
5.4.2 BiohydrogenProduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
5.4.3 WastewaterTreatmentinMFC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
5.4.4 ApplicationofMFCsinBiosensor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
6 ThermalConversionsofBiomass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
6.1 Combustion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
6.1.1 PrinciplesofCombustion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
6.1.2 FeedstocksforBiomassCombustion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
6.1.3 UtilizingBiomassasanEnergySource. . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
6.1.4 CaloricValue:Biomassvs.FossilFuels. . . . . . . . . . . . 306
6.1.5 BiomassProcessingforCombustion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
6.1.6 ResizingBiomass. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 311
6.1.7 CollectionSystemsforAgriculturalBiomass. . . . . . . . . 311
6.1.8 TransformingBiomass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
6.1.9 BiomassCofiring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
6.1.10 ProsandCons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
6.2 BiomassGasification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
6.2.1 BiomassGasificationProcessSteps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
6.2.2 TypesofGasifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
6.2.3 GasificationChemistryandProcess. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
6.2.4 GasificationProcessTypes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
6.2.5 AdvantagesofBiomassGasificationTechnologies. . . . . 339
6.2.6 CommercializationofBiomassGasifier. . . . . . . . . . . . . 340