Table Of ContentBiodiversity, Temperate
Ecosystems, and Global Change
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Series I: Global Environmental Change, Vol. 20
Biodiversity, Temperate
Ecosystems, and Global Change
Edited by
Timothy J. B. Boyle
Christopher E. B. Boyle
Canadian Forest SeNice
351 St. Joseph Blvd.
Hull, Quebec K1A 1GS
Canada
Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg New York London Paris Tokyo
Hong Kong Barcelona Budapest
Published in cooperation with NATO Scientific Affairs Division
Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Biodiversity,
Temperate Ecosystems and Global Change, held at Montebello, Canada, August
15-19,1993
ISBN-13: 978-3-642-78974-8 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-78972-4
001: 10.1007/978-3-642-78972-4
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Biodiversity. temperate ecosystems. and global change / edited by Timothy J.B. Boyle. Christopher
E.B. Boyle. p. cm. - (NATO ASI series. Series I. Global environmental change; vol. 20)
"Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Biodiversity. Temperate Ecosystems
and Global Change. held at Montebello. Canada. August 15-19. 1993"-T. p. verso. Includes
bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13; 978-3-642-78974-8
1. Bioclimatology--Congresses. 2. Climatic changes-Environmental aspects-Congresses. 3. Biologi
cal diversity consercation-Congresses. 4. Biotic communities-Congresses. 5. Man-Influene on
nature--Congresses. I. Boyle. Timothy James Butler. 1957- . II. Boyle. Christopher E. B .• 1943- . III.
NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Biodiversity. Temperate Ecosystems. and Global change
(1993: Montebello. Quebec) IV. Series. QH543.B54 1994 574.5'222--dc20 94-14990
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved. whether the whole or part of the material is
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© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1994
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1994
Typesetting: Camera ready by authors
SPIN 10101840 31/3130 -5 4321 0 -Printed on acid-free paper
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Biodiversity, Temperate Ecosystems and Global Change:
Introduction to the NATO Advanced Research Workshop,
by T.J.B. Boyle... ...... ... ... ... ......... ........ ....... ......... ... 1
Chapter 1: Conservation strategies in the face of global
change, by D. Neave, C. Caza and S. Henneman............ 9
Chapter 2: Social factors as driving forces: towards
interdisciplinary models of global change, by
G.E. Machlis and D.J. Forester. ... ... .................. ..... .... 19
Chapter 3: The natural impermanency of most temperate
wetlands, by R.L. Bowen.......................................... 53
Chapter 4: Predicting the fate of temperate species in
response to human disturbance and global change,
by K. Thompson ..................................................... 61
Chapter 5: Ground beetles in a changing environment:
determinants of species diversity and community
assembly, by M. Loreau ........................................... 77
Chapter 6: Fungal species diversity and forest ecosystem
functioning in the Netherlands, by T.W. Kuyper ............. 99
Chapter 7: Effects of former land use on plant species
diversity and pattern in European deciduous
woodlands, by M. Hermy ......................................... 123
Chapter 8: Impact of global change on genetic diversity of
temperate ecosystems, by G. Nanlkoong ........................ 145
Chapter 9: Strategies for conserving genetic diversity in
the face of global change, by H.-R. Gregorius ... ... .... ...... 157
Chapter 10: The genetic response of plant populations to
a changing environment: the case for non-Mendelian
processes, by T. Skreppa and 0. Johnsen ...................... 183
Chapter 11: The effects of natural disturbance on plant
communities in temperate ecosystems, by D.C. Malcolm ... 201
Chapter 12: Ecological processes linking forest structure
and avian diversity in western Oregon, by A.J. Hansen,
R.M. Vega, A.W. McKee, and A. Moldenke ................. 217
VI
Chapter 13: Fire and diversity in Canadian ecosystems, by
L.C. Duchesne ....................................................... 247
Chapter 14: Consequences of a 150 years' history of human
disturbances in some forest ecosystems, by R.J.M. Lenz ... 265
Chapter 15: Soil arthropods for faunal indices in assessing
changes in natural value resulting from human
disturbances, by R. Pizzolotto .................................... 291
Chapter 16: Changes in the species diversity of ground
beetles (Coleoptera, Carabidae) following disturbances,
by A. Georges .... .... ...... ... .... ... ... ... ... ...... .... ... ... ...... 315
Chapter 17: Biodiversity of the Wadden Sea (Denmark, Germany,
the Netherlands): recent changes and future
projections, by W.J. Wolff, N. Dankers, K.S. Dijkema,
P.J.H. Reijnders, and C.J. Smit .. ......... ... .... ... ...... ....... 337
Chapter 18: Interactions between tree species and their effects
on nitrogen and phosphorus transformations in the
forest floor, by B.L. Williams.................................... 357
Chapter 19: A research agenda for global change in Finland:
research priorities for the conservation and sustainable
use of biodiversity, by R. Vaisanen and J.-P. Jappinen .. .... 371
Chapter 20: Biodiversity, global change and forest
management: a Quebec perspective, by A. Cimon ............ 389
Chapter 21: Research needs and opportunities: the response
of forest biodiversity to global change, by R.C. Szaro .... ... 399
Chapter 22: Biodiversity and climate change: identifying an
economic research agenda, by D. G. Hodges and
J.L. Regens ........................................................... 417
Chapter 23: Biodiversity research needs and opportunities,
the role of international scientific organizations:
the Diversitas example, by T. Younes ........................... 429
Chapter 24: Conclusions, and a research agenda for
biodiversity, temperate ecosystems, and global
change, by T.J.B. Boyle .... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .... ... ... .... .... 441
Index ........................................................................... 449
Biodiversity, Temperate Ecosystems, and Global Change: Introduction to the
NATO Advanced Research Workshop
T.J.B. Boyle
Canadian Forest Service
351 St. Joseph Blvd.
Hull, Quebec, Canada
In the second half of the 20th century, the burgeoning global human population,
combined with dramatic developments in the power of human technology, has resulted
in an immense increase in the impacts of human activities on the global environment.
Huge, self-contained factory ships have replaced small, local fishing vessels; in place
of axes and chainsaws, feller-buncher vehicles now work 24 hours a day harvesting
forests; and new varieties of agricultural crops allow clearance of land previously
unsuitable for agriculture. Thankfully, technological developments have also produced
more rapid, more comprehensive, and more dramatic images of the extent of human
impacts. Only with the advent of satellite images has the enormous extent of
deforestation and erosion become obvious, and it is only with modem computing
power that Global Circulation Models can be used to make predictions of future
climates.
The idea of global resources being limited and the global environment being
threatened is nevertheless difficult to comprehend when human interactions inevitably
occur at a very local, small scale. This is certainly one reason why the response to
the threats posed to the global environment has lagged behind the pace of the damage.
It took the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (" Our
Common Future WCED 1987) to draw the world's attention to the magnitude of the
II ,
problem. The WCED issued a call to action, and popularized the concept of
sustainable development as being a suitable goal for human activities.
NATO AS1 Series, Vol. 120
Biodivenity, Temperate Ecosystems, and Global Change
Edited by T.J. B. Boyle and C.E.B. Boyle
e Springer-Ve r!ag Berlin Heidelberg 1994
2
Since the production of the WCED report, there has indeed been some action.
In 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
was held in Rio de Janeiro, and at that conference international treaties were signed
on biodiversity and climate change. Since UNCED, international discussions have
begun on desertification, and the idea of an international treaty on forests is still being
pursued.
. The fact that biodiversity was one of the first issues to gain the attention of the
world's nations reflects an appreciation that biodiversity is both affected by global
change, and provides a safeguard against the effects of global change. Obviously,
land degradation and extinction events are two examples of global change issues that
result in losses of biodiversity. However, the very fact that life exists on earth at all
is the result of biodiversity, which allows organisms, species, and communities to
respond to a changing environment.
A NATO Advanced Research Workshop on the subject of Biodiversity,
Temperate Ecosystems, and Global Change, was held at Chateau Montebello, Quebec,
Canada, August 15-19 1993. The goal of the workshop was to review the current
state of knowledge concerning the relationship between global change and biodiversity
of temperate ecosystems, and to determine which research topics should be given
priority in order to promote increased understanding of the relationship and an
improved ability to conserve biodiversity under conditions of global change. Although
the theme of the workshop is widely recognized to be extremely topical and important,
there is a degree of ambiguity concerning each of the terms used in the title of the
Advanced Research Workshop. The use of the terms, and definitions adopted for the
purposes of the workshop, are discussed below.
BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is a concept that encompasses all levels of biological diversity. A
variety of definitions have been offered (appropriately, given the subject) for the
concept of biodiversity. All of them attempt to capture essentially the same ideas,
with varying degrees of clarity and succinctness. In the "Global Biodiversity
Strategy", the term is dermed simply as:
3
"the totality of genes, species and ecosystems in a region" (World Resources
Institute et al. 1991).
The definition given in "Caring for the Earth" is:
"the variety of life in all its forms, levels and combinations. [It] includes
ecosystem diversity, species diversity and genetic diversity" (World
Conservation Union et al. 1991).
while McNeely et al. (1990) offer a description, rather than a definition, that reads in
part:
"Biological diversity encompasses all species of plants, animals and
microorganisms and the ecosystems and ecological processes of which they are
parts. It is an umbrella term for the degree ofnature's variety, including both
the number and frequency of ecosystems, species or genes in a given
assemblage" .
Perhaps the best, and most widely accepted definition was proposed by the U. S.
Government's Office of Technology Assessment (U.S. Congress, Office of
Technology Assessment 1987), which stated that:
"Biological diversity refers to the variety and variability among living
organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur. Diversity can be
defined as the number of different items and their relative frequency. For
biological diversity, these items are organized at many levels, ranging from
complete ecosystems to the chemical structures that are the molecular basis of
heredity. Thus, the term encompasses different ecosystems, species, genes and
their relative abundance. "
This definition emphasizes the two main points concerning biodiversity: first, that it
comprises all levels of biological organization, from genes through to ecosystems; and
secondly, that it refers not only to numbers but also to frequencies.
However, biodiversity is a concept that causes difficulty in application. For
example, measurement of biodiversity, which is essential if changes are to be detected,
strictly speaking requires the assessment and integration of measures of biodiversity
at all levels in the biological hierarchy. This is not realistic; what is required is a
4
comprehensive, but practical set of indicators of biodiversity, but as yet no consensus
exists on what such indicators should be.
TEMPERATE ECOSYSTEMS
Temperate ecosystems are subject to several different interpretations, but the
most widely used classification system is that based on the "Koppen system" (Bailey
1989). Under this classification system, temperate ecosystems are defined as follows:
Temperate oceanic: 8 months > lOoC, warmest month < 22°C
Temperate continental/warm summer: 4-8 months > lOoC, warmest month > 22°C
Temperate continental/cool summer: 4-8 months> lOoC, warmest month < 22°C.
Temperate climates are distinguished from boreal climates by having four or more
months warmer than 10"C, while boreal climates are distinct from polar climates in
having at least one month over 1000C. However, for the purpose of the Advanced
Research Workshop, boreal ecosystems were included in the definition of temperate.
GLOBAL CHANGE
Global change is variously defined, and there is no consensus on what processes
should be included and the most logical grouping of issues. The US Global Change
Research Program supports research under the themes of:
• Climate Modelling and Prediction,
• Global Water and Energy Cycles,
• Global Carbon Cycle,
• Ecological Systems and Population Dynamics, and
• Other Research.
The last category included, for 1992, research on stratospheric ozone, human
interactions, solid earth processes, and solar influences (Committee on Earth and
Environmental Sciences 1992).
The Global Change Program of the Royal Society of Canada (RSC) recognizes
seven global change issues. These are:
• Climate Change,
• Energy and Resource Consumption,
