Table Of ContentP. J. Kuhn A. P. J. Trinci M. J. Jung
M. W. Goosey L. G. Copping (Eds.)
Biochemistry
of Cell Walls
and Membranes
in Fungi
With 88 Figures and 46 Tables
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York
London Paris Tokyo HongKong
Dr. PAUL J. KUHN Dr. MICHAEL W. GOOSEY
Shell Research Ltd. Shell Research Ltd.
Sittingbourne Research Centre Sittingbourne Research Centre
Sittingbourne, Kent ME9 8AG Sittingbourne, Kent ME9 8AG
United Kingdom United Kingdom
Professor ANTHONY P. J. TRINCI Dr. LEONARD G. COPPING
Microbiology Group Dow Agricultural Products R&D
Department of Cell & Letcombe Laboratory, Letcombe Regis
Structural Biology Wantage, Oxfordshire OX12 9JT
School of Biological Sciences United Kingdom
University of Manchester
Manchester M 13 9PL
United Kingdom
Dr. MICHEL J. JUNG
Dow Agricultural Products
R&D, Letcombe Laboratory
Letcombe Regis, Wantage,
Oxfordshire OX12 9JT
United Kingdom
ISBN-\3: 978-3-642-74217-0 e-ISBN-\3: 978-3-642-74215-6
DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-74215-6
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Biochemistry of cell walls and membranes in fungi/Po J. Kuhn ... let al.l, eds. p. cm. Includes
bibliographical references.
ISBN-\3:978-3-642-74217-0 (alk. paper: U.S.)
1. Fungal cell walls. 2. Fungal membranes. 3. Fungi-Cytochemitry. I. Kuhn, P. J. (Paul John),
1954- . QK60l.B54 1989 589.2'04875-dc20 89-21707
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Preface
Despite the many advances made during the last decade in various aspects
of fungal biochemistry, there have been very few volumes devoted to the sub
ject in recent years. This lack is all the more surprising in view of the increas
ing use of fungi in gene manipulation studies and in biotechnological ap
plications, and of the current interest in the biorational discovery of novel
agents for the control of fungal pathogens of plants and humans. We hope
that this book goes some way to rectifying this situation by providing an up
to-date account of selected developments in two important areas, namely
cell walls and membranes. Topics included in the book concern both yeasts
and filamentous fungi.
Although the main emphasis is on biogenesis, functional aspects are also
discussed, e.g. the role of glycoproteins in recognition of sterols in mem
branes and of calcium in regulation. Several contributions describe in
terference with the 'normal' biochemistry of cell walls and membranes with
a view to increasing fundamental knowledge, but also highly relevant to the
design of new fungicides and antimycotics. The steadily increasing impact
of molecular biology on the study of fungal biochemistry is highlighted
throughout.
We would like to thank the following sponsors for their generous sup
port: Agricultural Genetics Company Ltd, BASF, Ciba-Geigy AG, Dow
Chemical Co Ltd, Glaxo Group Research Ltd, ICI PLC, Monsanto, Pfizer
Central Research, Schering AG and Shell Research Ltd. The help of the Bio
chemical Society and in particular advice from Dr. Peter Quinn are also
gratefully acknowledged.
September 1989 P.J. KUHN
A. P. J. TRINe I
M.J. JUNG
M.W. GOOSEY
L. G. COPPING
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Cell Walls and Membranes in Fungi -
An Introdnction
P. J. KUHN and A. P. 1. TRINeI .................... .
References ................................. . . . . . 4
Chapter 2 Fungal Cell Walls - A Review
J. F. PEBERDY ................................... 5
Introduction .................................... 5
2 The Chemistry and Architecture of the Fungal Cell
Wall........................................... 6
3 Synthesis of Cell Wall Polymers ................... 9
4 Stability of the Cell Wall ......................... 11
5 Wall Formation During Protoplast Regeneration .... 12
6 Genetics and the Fungal Wall ..................... 13
7 The Cell Wall as a Target ........................ 16
8 The Cell Wall as an Interactive Surface ............ 18
9 The Protective Role of the Cell Wall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
10 Cell Wall Enzymes, Wall Porosity and Enzyme
Secretion ....................................... 22
11 Concluding Statement ........................... 23
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Chapter 3 Chitin Synthesis in Yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
. E. CABlB, S. J. SILVERMAN, A. SBURLATI, and
M. L. SLATER ................................... 31
Introduction .................................... 31
2 Zymogen Nature of Chitin Synthetase ............. 31
3 Intracellular Distribution of Chitin Synthetase ...... 32
4 Cloning of a Chitin Synthetase Structural Gene ..... 32
5 A New Chitin Synthetase ........................ 34
6 Cloning of the Chitin Synthetase 2 Structural Gene . . 35
VIII Table of Contents
7 Requirement of Chitin Synthetase 2 for Cell Division 37
8 Chitin Synthetase 1 - A Repair Enzyme? .......... 38
9 The Present Status of Chitin Synthesis in Yeast ..... 39
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Chapter 4 A Novel Computer Model for Generating
Cell Shape: Application to Fnngal Morphogenesis
S. BARTNICKI-GARCIA, F. HERGERT, and G. GlERZ .... 43
1 Introduction..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2 Current Concepts of Wall Growth in Fungi ......... 43
3 A Model of Wall Growth Based on Vesicles ........ 44
4 Computer Simulation of Morphogenesis ........... 45
5 Mathematical Model for Hyphal Growth ........... 48
6 Relationship of Spitzenkorper to VSC ............. 51
7 The VSC Concept and Mechanisms for VSC
Displacement ................................... 51
8 Simulations of Morphogenetic Processes in Fungi ... 53
9 Limitations.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
10 Discussion and Conclusions ...................... 57
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Chapter 5 Inhibition of Chitin Metabolism
G. W. GOODAY .................................. 61
Chitin Metabolism as a Target for Antifungal Agents 61
2 Chitin Synthase ................................. 61
3 Glutamine-Fructose-6-P-Aminotransferase .......... 69
4 Chitinase ...................................... 70
5 Conclusions...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Chapter 6 Wall Structure, Wall Growth, and Fungal Cell
Morphogenesis
1. G. H. WESSELS, P. C. MOL, 1. H. SlETSMA, and
C. A. VERMEULEN ............................... 81
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2 Alkali-Insoluble ,B-Glucan in the Mature Wall Forms
Part of a Glucosaminoglycan-Glucan Complex ...... 82
3 Secondary Structures in the Glucosaminoglycan-
Glucan Wall Complex ........................... 84
Table of Contents IX
4 Apical Biosynthesis and Morphogenesis of the
Hyphal Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5 Mycelium.yeast Transitions ....................... 90
6 Diffuse Extension of Hyphal Walls ................ 91
7 Conclusions .................................... 93
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Chapter 7 Cellulose and fi-Glucan Synthesis in Saprolegnia
M. FEvRE, V. GIRARD, and P. NODET .............. 97
1 Introduction... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2 Synthesis and Deposition of Cell Wall Glucans in
Sapro/egnia hyphae .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3 Cellulose Synthesis and Hyphal Morphogenesis ..... 99
4 If-Glucan Synthases from Sapro/egnia .............. 100
5 Purification of GIucan Synthases from Sapro/egnia .. 103
6 Conclusions..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
References ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Chapter 8 Synthesis and Function of Glycosylated Proteins in
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
W. TANNER..................................... 109
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2 Biosynthetic Pathways ........................... 110
3 Functional Aspects .............................. 112
4 Summary ...................................... 115
References ...................................... 116
Chapter 9 Lipids in the Structure and Function of
Fungal Membranes
D.M. LbsEL .................................... 119
Introduction .................................... 119
2 The Membrane System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3 Membrane Structure ............................. 122
4 Membrane Composition ......................... 124
5 Functions of Membrane Lipids ................... 127
6 Influence of Environment, Nutrition,
and Development on Membrane Composition
and Function ................................... 129
7 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
References ...................................... 132
X Table of Contents
Chapter 10 Importance and Role of Sterols in Fungal
Membranes
H. VANDEN BOSSCHE ........................... 135
Introduction ................................... 135
2 Ergosterol: Does It Meet the Requirements of
Fungal Membranes? ............................ 141
3 What Are the Consequences for the Cell to
Synthesize Alkylated Sterols? .................... 150
4 Why Ergosterol Instead of Cholesterol? ........... 152
References .................................... 153
Chapter 11 HMG-CoA to Isopentenyl Pyrophosphate -
Enzymology and Inhibition
R.H. ABELES .................................. 159
Hydroxymethylglutaryl-Coenzyme A (HMG-CoA)
Reductase ..................................... 159
2 Isopentenyl Pyrophosphate Isomerase (IPPI) ...... 162
3 Inhibition of Mevalonate-5-Pyrophosphate
Decarboxylase ................................. 163
References .................................... 166
Chapter 12 Isopentenyl Diphosphate to Squalene -
Enzymology and Inhibition
C. D. POULTER ................................. 169
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
2 Isopentenyl Diphosphate: Dimethylallyl Diphosphate
Isomerase ..................................... 171
3 Farnesyl Diphosphate Synthetase ................. 177
4 Squalene Synthetase ............................ 181
5 Conclusions........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
References .................................... 186
Chapter 13 Squalene Epoxidase - Enzymology and
. Inhibition
N.S. RYDER 189
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
2 Enzymology.......................... . . . . . . . . . 191
3 Squalene Epoxidase Inhibitors ................... 194
4 Squalene Epoxidase Inhibitors as Antifungal
Agents .. " ................. " . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . 199
References .................................... 200
Table of Contents XI
Chapter 14 Inhibition of Sterol Biosynthesis in Higher Plants
by Analogues of High Energy Carbocationic
Intermediates
A. RAHIER, M. TATON, P. BENVENISTE. . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Introduction ................................... 205
2 Inhibition of Phytosterol Biosynthesis by
Carbocationic HEI and Transition State Analogues. 211
3 Conclusions...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
References .................................... 220
Chapter 15 Lanosterol to Ergosterol - Enzymology,
Inhibition and Genetics
S. L. KELLY, S. KENNA, H. F. J. BLIGH, P. F. WATSON,
I. STANSFIELD, S. W. ELLIS, and D. E. KELLY ....... 223
Introduction ................................... 223
2 Antifungal Compounds and Their Activities ....... 225
3 Fungal Cytochrome P-450 ....................... 232
4 Conclusions and Implications for the Discovery of
Novel Antifungal Agents ........................ 238
References .................................... 238
Chapter 16 Biosynthesis and Role of Phospholipids in Yeast
Membranes
l.E. HILL, C. CHUNG, P. MCGRAW, E. SUMMERS,
and S. A. HENRY ............................... 245
Regulation of Phospholipid Synthesis in
S. cerevisiae - A Review ....................... 245
2 Regulation of Phospholipid Synthesis in S. pombe
- Introduction ................................ 252
3 Roles of Phospholipids in S. cerevisiae and
S. pombe ..................................... 257
References .................................... 259
Chapter 17 Inhibitors of Phospholipid Biosynthesis
G.D. ROBSON, M. WIEBE, P.l. KUHN,
and A. P. l. TRINC! ............................. 261
Introduction .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
2 Phospholipid Structure and Biosynthesis .......... 262
3 Inhibitors of Phospholipid Biosynthesis ........... 265
4 Validamycin and Edifenphos as Paramorphogens ... 276
References .................................... 277
XII Table of Contents
Chapter 18 Transduction of the Calcium Signal with Special
Reference to CaH -Induced Conidiation in
Penicillium notatum
D. PITT and A. KAILE .......................... 283
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
2 Regulation of Intracellular Calcium .............. 283
3 Calcium as an Intracellular Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
4 The Role of Calcium in Fungi ................... 288
5 Ca2+ , Signal Transduction and Morphogenesis in
Fungi......................................... 288
6 Ca2+ and Signal Transduction in Penicillium
notatum ...................................... 289
7 Concluding Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
References .................................... 296
Chapter 19 Structure and Function of Fungal Plasma
Membrane ATPases
C. L. SLAYMAN, P. KAMINSKI, and D. STETSON 299
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
2 Membrane Appearance of the Plasma Membrane
(PM) ATPase .................................. 299
3 Functional Properties of the Proton Pump ........ 301
4 Chemistry of the Enzyme ....................... 304
5 Primary Structure and Predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
6 Models for Proton Pumping ....... , ... " . . . . .. .. 310
7 Current Directions ............................. 314
References .................................... 315
Subject Index ............................................. 317
