Table Of ContentBIOCHAR
APPLICATION
ESSENTIAL SOIL
MICROBIAL ECOLOGY
Edited by
T. K R -s , C H. o
omang alebiTso enioR aRoline RR
Teesside University, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom
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Dedication
To our families
Contributors
P. Barakoti Teesside University, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom
A.O. Bayode Teesside University, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom
S. Behrens University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States and
BioTechonology Institute, St. Paul, MN, United States
F.S. Cannavan University of São Paulo, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil
T.R. Cavagnaro The Waite Research Institute, The University of Adelaide, SA,
Australia
R. Chintala Nutrient Management & Stewardship, Innovation Center for U.S.
Dairy, Rosemont, IL, United States
L.F. de Souza University of São Paulo, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil
X. Domene Autonomous University of Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain;
Centre for Ecological Research and Forestry Applications (CREAF), Bellaterra,
Barcelona, Spain
C.J. Ennis Teesside University, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom
A.-M. Fortuna North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, United States
M.G. Germano University of São Paulo, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil; Brazilian
Agricultural Research Corporation, Embrapa Soybean, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
Y. Gong Nankai University, Tianjin, China
R. Gurav Nankai University, Tianjin, China
N. Hagemann University of Tüebingen, Tüebingen, Germany
J. Harter University of Tüebingen, Tüebingen, Germany
H. Lyu Nankai University, Tianjin, China
F.M. Nakamura University of São Paulo, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil
E.-L. Ng Future Soils Laboratory, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
C.H. Orr Teesside University, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom
J. Pickering Teesside University, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom
S. Prior Teesside University, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom
T. Komang Ralebitso-Senior Teesside University, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom
T.E. Schumacher South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, United States
G. Soja AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Tulln, Austria
C. Steiner University of Kassel, Witzenhausen, Germany
S. Subramanian South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, United States
J. Tang Nankai University, Tianjin, China
S.M. Tsai University of São Paulo, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil
xi
Foreword
Biochar is charcoal made from biomass and used as a soil amendment.
In late 2014, Elsevier asked me to review a book proposal on biochar
by Komang Ralebitso-Senior and Caroline Orr. I had been aware of the
potential of biochar to improve agricultural productivity, clean up con-
taminated land, and promote carbon sequestration to reduce the impact
of climate change. As always my advice to investigators was to provide
evidence in support of the claims. It seemed to me that a lot had already
been written, but few books covered in depth the hard scientific evidence
backing the case for biochar use. My dialogue with the authors on their
proposal suggested that they had the capacity to produce just the type
of book needed for scientists to evaluate the evidence base for the bio-
logical activity. If it passed that test, and field trials were positive, then
policymakers would be in a better place to recommend various biochar
formulations as a means to protect the planet and promote food security.
Komang and Caroline have been up to the challenge of producing such
a book, and the scientific and agricultural communities now have a very
useful volume to consider the evidence.
I have spent a career in research largely trying to establish evidence
that might be useful to develop policy for public and environmental
good. This is in contrast to curiosity–driven activity, which might also be
termed “blue sky” research. The reality is that innovation, which is the
process of translating an idea or invention into goods or services for the
public good or for which people will pay commercially, is critical in both
paths. As Coordinator of the OECD Co-operative Research Programme
for Biological Resource Management for Agricultural Sustainability from
1989 to 2006, I was continually inviting topics for bi-national research
collaboration and international workshops. Always the challenge was to
select innovative ideas, often applying the latest technologies from widely
varying topics. For example, these ranged from the use of earth observa-
tion in precision agriculture, to the use of the latest DNA/RNA probes to
identify relevant biological activity in soil. Many were in the context of cli-
mate change, which is having so much impact on the planet, its biota, and
its people. Biochar is a potentially innovative topic and product, and can
be investigated using innovative technologies such as DNA/RNA probes.
Innovation can be clouded by false claims. While working in the United
States and in other countries such as India, I became aware of the “snake
oil salesman” who would try to peddle microbial inoculants to improve
xiii
xiv FOREWORD
agricultural production. Most could be dismissed because of lack of evi-
dence but occasionally evidence was produced for the value of a prepara-
tion. These included rhizobia to stimulate nitrogen fixation in legumes,
and bacteria and fungi that can control pests and diseases, some of the
inoculants having been genetically modified. Most importantly, however,
molecular markers became increasingly the system of choice to identify
establishment and effectiveness. Caroline and Komang’s book effectively
collates some of the latest scientific investigations, including molecular
markers, on biochar action in the environment and will provoke much
discussion; I hope it is read widely.
Jim Lynch, OBE
Distinguished Professor of Life Sciences, University of Surrey
Acknowledgments
First, we would like to acknowledge those who contributed directly to
this manuscript: the teams of authors who helped to make our idea a reality
and added to the strength of the book; and Professor Jim Lynch, who gave
us his time to discuss the need for a policy statement and then agreed
generously to write the Foreword.
Several anonymous reviewers endorsed our book proposal and
informed some of our decisions, helping to shape the book into its current
form. We were also helped by researchers who could not contribute to the
manuscript, but pointed us in the direction of people who could.
We are grateful to Elsevier for giving us this opportunity to showcase
our analysis of state-of-the-art biochar research, its future direction, and
policy requirements. In particular, Marisa LaFleur is acknowledged grate-
fully for her friendly, task-oriented, and supportive professionalism.
Throughout the process we have been supported by our colleagues at
Teesside University who: allowed us to pick their brains on the publishing
process and shared their experiences of its inherent joys and pitfalls; made
time to help develop our blog video clip; and, generally, provided us with
a “Go for it!” attitude.
This book has also happened as a result of contributions from our
student researchers Abayomi Olaifa, Pratima Rai, Daniel Dancsics, Emma
Phillips, Stephen Anderson, Shaun Prior, Christopher Schroeter, Sean
Lindsay, Joe Russell, Jodie Harris, and Paul Wilkinson. Their enthusiasm
for our biochar research has helped focus our minds and kept the wheels
going. Furthermore, their research would not have been possible with-
out funding from the Teesside University Research Fund, Department for
Learning Development Students as Researchers, and Society for Applied
Microbiology Students into Work schemes.
Of course, there are many people who supported us academically
before we had the idea for this book but whose encouragement has helped
shape our careers. Specifically, Komang would like to thank Professor
Eric Senior, Professor Henk van Verseveld (RIP), and Dr Wilfred Röling
(RIP). Caroline would like to thank Professor Stephen Cummings, Dr Julia
Cooper, Professor Jennifer Ames, Dr Lynn Dover, and Dr Andrew Nelson.
Thankfully, there is more to our lives than being academics and we are
lucky enough to be surrounded by many fantastic people who remind us
of, and nurture, this balance when we need it. We will never be able to
communicate fully our gratitude to you, our family and friends, for your
xv
xvi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
support this year, and always especially our parents: Malebitso and Alex
(RIP), Jean and Michael.
Our final acknowledgment is reserved for our husbands, Eric Senior
(and Our Two Ks) and Mark Dunkley. Thank you, mainly, for tolerating
us, particularly when we come home late, get distracted with emails at
weekends and holidays, and expect you to act as sounding boards during
moments of ranting. Your unconditional love and support helps make us
what and who we are.
C H A P T E R
1
Microbial Ecology Analysis
of Biochar-Augmented Soils:
Setting the Scene
T. Komang Ralebitso-Senior, C.H. Orr
Teesside University, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom
O U T L I N E
Overview 2
Biochar 2
Terra Preta 4
Contemporary Biochar and Physico-/Biochemical Characteristics 4
Biochar and Its Applications 5
Climate Change Mitigation 5
Agriculture 7
Bioremediation 15
Biochar as Habitat for Soil Organisms 16
Soil Biota Response to Biochar 19
Microfauna 19
Meso-/Macrofauna 23
Policy Guidelines and Requirements for Biochar Application 24
Summary 31
References 32
Biochar Application 1
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803433-0.00001-1 © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 1. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY ANALYSIS OF BIOCHAR-AUGMENTED SOILS
OVERVIEW
Surpassing energy production and water provision, carbon seques-
tration, to slow the momentum of inimical climate change, is now the
single greatest challenge facing the scientific community. Of the various
sequestration options, charcoal production, to stabilize photosynthetically
fixed carbon, and its subsequent application to soil (biochar), is destined
to make a significant contribution particularly with its additionalities of
waste reduction and energy production. Together with carbon sequestra-
tion, significant economic benefits can be gained through ecosystem res-
toration, including contaminated land remediation and improved plant
productivity, by enhanced fertilizer efficacy, with small farmers in devel-
oping countries set to benefit most from this “climate-smart” agriculture
(Cernansky, 2015).
The importance of harnessing carbon can be gauged readily by recog-
nizing that between the 1850s and 2000 carbon loss from the soil organic
pool totaled 78 ± 12 gigatonnes (Gt) while natural fire biochar redressed
the balance by 35% at most.
According to the UK Environment Agency, contaminated land accounts
for >57,000 ha in England and Wales alone while the African continent is
blighted by 63 million hectares. Current bioremediation strategies, such
as land-farming/pump-and-treat/semipermeable and permeable reac-
tive barriers, can be enhanced considerably by biochar as a vehicle for
biosupplementation, biostimulation, and bioaugmentation. With the
unprecedented global interest in the use of biochar as an environmental
management tool, this book aims to showcase the cutting-edge studies
and findings on the (molecular) microbial ecology of historical and con-
temporary biochar applications to soil.
BIOCHAR
Biochar, sometimes termed “pyrochar,” is the carbon-rich, solid by-
product obtained from the carbonization of biomass, such as wood,
manure, or leaves, heated to temperatures between 300°C and 1000°C
under low (preferably zero) oxygen concentration. This process is known
as pyrolysis (Lehmann, 2007; Lehmann and Joseph, 2009; Verheijen
et al., 2010), which, typically, gives three products: liquid (bio-oil); solid
(biochar); and gas (syngas) with the yield of each varying dramatically
depending on the pyrolysis process (slow, fast, and flash) and conditions
(ie, feedstock, temperature, pressure, time, heating, and rate) (Fig. 1.1). In
particular, biochar production has been reported to decrease with increas-
ing temperature (IEA, 2007 cited in Spokas et al., 2009).
