Table Of ContentBIOBASED POLYMERS
Properties and Applications
in Packaging
PRATIMABAJPAI
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List of figures
Figure 3.1 Structure of amylose. 27
Figure 3.2 Structure of amylopectin. 28
Figure 3.3 Molecular structure of cellulose representing the cellobiose
unit as a repeating unit. 34
Figure 3.4 Structure of chitin and chitosan. 40
Figure 3.5 Structure of pullulan. 43
Figure 3.6 Structure of alginate. 45
Figure 3.7 Structure of carrageenan. 48
Figure 3.8 Structure of xanthan gum. 51
Figure 3.9 General structure of class 1 dextrans consisting of a linear
backbone of a(1/6)-linked D-glucopyranosyl
repeating units. 53
Figure 3.10 (A) A repeating segment of pectin molecule and functional
groups: (B) carboxyl; (C) ester; (D) amide in pectin chain. 56
Figure 3.11 Structure of b-glucan. 57
Figure 3.12 Structure of gellan. 58
Figure 3.13 Gelatin. 61
Figure: 3.14 Chemical structure of polylactic acid (PLA). 73
Figure 3.15 Synthesis of high-molecular-weight PLA from L- and
D-lactic acids. 74
Figure 3.16 Polybutylene succinate. 79
Figure 3.17 PBS and its production route. 80
Figure 3.18 Structure of PHAs with respect to classification. 83
Figure 3.19 PE macromolecule carbon chain. 85
Figure 4.1 Rigid packaging. 114
Figure 4.2 Flexible packaging. 120
Figure 6.1 Examples of time-temperature indicators: (A) Fresh-Check
by Temptime Corporation (USA) (B) CoolVu by
Freshpoint (Switzerland (C) Checkpoint by Vitsab
International AB (Sweden) (D) OnVu by Freshpoint
(Switzerland) (E) Tempix by Tempix AB (Sweden) and
(F) Timestrip by Timestrip (UK). 156
Figure 6.2 Example of: (A) a 1-D barcode; B) a PDF 417 2-D
barcode; and (C) a QR 2-D barcode. 159
xi
xii Listoffigures
Figure 7.1 Prevalence of environmental impact indicators (damage
or resource indicators) in 72 published life cycle analysis
(LCA) studies on biobased (nonenergy) products. 173
Figure 7.2 Average product-specific environmental impacts of
biobased materials in comparison to conventional materials
(Dij). Uncertainty intervals represent the standard deviation
of data. Numbers in parentheses indicate the sample size
for the functional units of per metric ton and per hectare
and year, respectively. 176
Figure 7.3 Average nonrenewable primary energy use and greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions of biobased chemicals in comparison
to conventional chemicals (Dij). Uncertainty intervals
represent the standard deviation of data. Numbers in
parentheses indicate the sample size for the biobased
and conventional chemicals, respectively. 177
List of tables
Table 1.1 Advantages of natural biopolymer films. 5
Table 1.2 Classification of biopolymers depending on the general
chemical composition. 8
Table 2.1 Bioplastics (European Bioplastics Association). 14
Table 2.2 Criteria used for sorting biopolymers. 14
Table 2.3 Manufacturers of biopolymers. 15
Table 3.1 Biobased polymers produced by various processes. 26
Table 3.2 Applications of starch products. 30
Table 3.3 Properties and applications of modified starches. 30
Table 3.4 Suppliers of starch-based products. 32
Table 3.5 Global suppliers of cellulosic products. 36
Table 3.6 Manufacturers producing cellulose-based polymer films
for packaging. 37
Table 3.7 Industrially important cellulose derivatives. 37
Table 3.8 Advantages of PLA over traditional petroleum-based polymers. 73
Table 3.9 Glass transition and melting temperature of PLA with various
ratios of L-monomer composition. 75
Table 3.10 Suppliers of PLA. 78
Table 3.11 Suppliers of PBS. 81
Table 3.12 Global suppliers of various types of PHAs. 89
Table 4.1 Rigid packaging. 113
Table 4.2 Global rigid plastic packaging consumption. 117
Table 4.3 Key players for the rigid packaging market. 117
Table 4.4 Types of flexible packaging. 119
Table 4.5 Main flexible packaging materials. 120
Table 4.6 Types of flexible plastics. 120
Table 4.7 Advantages of flexible packaging over rigid containers. 124
Table 4.8 Key manufacturers of flexible packaging. 126
Table 6.1 The importance of packaging. 140
Table 6.2 Role of packaging. 140
Table 6.3 Active and intelligent packaging systems. 142
Table 6.4 A few examples of active packaging systems. 143
Table 6.5 Attributes of commercial oxygen scavengers. 144
Table 6.6 Advantages of antimicrobial edible coatings and films. 148
Table 6.7 Commercial active packaging systems. 153
xiii
xiv Listoftables
Table 6.8 TTIs’ market applications. 155
Table 6.9 Commercial applications of freshness indicators. 157
Table 6.10 Gas indicators. 157
Table 6.11 Thermochromic inks are produced by several companies. 161
Table 6.12 Commercial intelligent packaging systems. 161
Table 7.1 Energy and greenhouse gas savings. 174
Table 8.1 Types of food contact materials. 185
Table 8.2 European legislation and other resources. 188
Table 9.1 Global market share for biopolymers used in packaging
by value, 2010 (%). 192
Table 11.1 Diverse applications of nanotechnology. 204
Preface
Development of biobased material is one important factor for sustainable growth of
the packaging industry. Recent trends in the consumer market have moved toward
greener packaging. Driven by biodegradability and biorenewability trends, the demand
for biobased materials in packaging is expected to grow to about 9.45million tons by
2023.
The issue of sustainability has been high for the last several years, encouraging
academia as well as industry to develop sustainable alternatives for preserving resources
for future generations. The successful use of renewable biological materials for the
productionofpackagingmaterialswillsatisfyanumberofthemajorobjectives.Toalarge
extent,packagingmaterials are basedon nonrenewable materials.The only widelyused
renewablepackagingmaterialsarepaperandboard,whicharebasedoncellulose,which
isthemostabundantrenewablepolymer.However,significanteffortsarebeingmadeto
identify alternative nonfood uses of agricultural crops and the production of packaging
materials, based on polymers from agricultural sources. Such alternative biobased
packaging materials have attracted considerable research and development interest for a
significant length of time, and in recent years these materials have reached the market.
Eco-concerns played a major role in encouraging the development of biopolymers in
packaging applications. This occurred directly via consumer demand for eco-friendly
productsaswellasindirectlyviathepoliticalandensuingregulatoryenvironment.Sour-
cesofbiopolymersthatareexpectedtobecomeincreasinglysignificantincludethosethat
donotcompetewithfoodproductionforresources,suchasalgae,andmaterialssuitable
for packaging applications based on algae are projected for launch soon. Furthermore,
technologicaladvances,suchasthosebasedonnanotechnology,areforecasttocontinue
improvingbiopolymerpropertiesandincreasingthenumberofpotentialapplicationsfor
such materials in packaging. This book looks at how biopolymers may be used in
packaging as a potential green solution. It addresses biobased feedstocks, production
processes, packaging types, recent trends in packaging, environmental impacts of
biobased polymers, and legislative demands for food contact packaging materials. It
covers opportunities for biopolymers in key end use sectors and penetration of
biopolymer-based concepts in the packaging market, as well as barriers to widespread
commercialization.
xv
Acknowledgments
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