Big History

377 Pages·2016·122.15 MB·English

by  Dorling Kindersley

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FOREWORD BY DAVID CHRISTIAN
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Lead Senior Editor Helen Fewster Managing Jackets Editor (Delhi) Saloni Singh
Senior Editors Peter Frances, Dr Rob Houston Producer, pre-production Jacqueline Street-Elkayam
Senior Art Editors Amy Child, Phil Gamble, Producer Mary Slater
Sharon Spencer
Project Art Editors Paul Drislane, Mik Gates, Managing Art Editor Michael Duffy
Duncan Turner, Francis Wong Managing Editor Angeles Gavira Guerrero
Design Assistant Alex Lloyd Art Director Karen Self
Project Editors Wendy Horobin, Andy Szudek Design Director Phil Ormerod
Editor Kaiya Shang Publisher Liz Wheeler
Editorial Assistant Francesco Piscitelli Publishing Director Jonathan Metcalf
Picture Researcher Liz Moore
Cartography Ron and Dee Blakey, Ed Merritt, Illustrators
Simon Mumford Rajeev Doshi (Medi-mation)
Peter Bull (Peter Bull Art Studio)
Jacket Designers Mark Cavanagh, Suhita Dharamjit
Arran Lewis
Jacket Editor Claire Gell Dominic Clifford
Senior DTP Designer (Delhi) Harish Aggarwal Jason Pickersgill (Acute Graphics)
Jacket Design Development Manager Sophia MTT Mark Clifton
First published in Great Britain in 2016 by
Dorling Kindersley Limited 80 Strand,
London WC2R 0RL
Copyright © 2016 Dorling Kindersley Limited
A Penguin Random House Company
2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3 1
001–287353–October/2016
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN: 978-0-2412-2590-5
Printed and bound in China
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Big History Institute Consultants Contributors
David Christian, Director, Big History Institute Introduction – Elise Bohan
Professor David Christian (DPhil Oxford) is the founder of Big History. David is a Threshold 1 – Robert Dinwiddie
Distinguished Professor at Macquarie University, co-founder with Bill Gates of the Threshold 2 – Jack Challoner
Big History Project, presenter of one of the 11 classic TED Talks with over 6 million Thresholds 3 and 4 – Colin Stuart
views, and instructor in the world’s first Big History MOOC on COURSERA®. Threshold 5 – Derek Harvey
Macquarie University was founded with a unique David has given hundreds of presentations internationally, including Davos World Threshold 6 – Rebecca Wragg-Sykes
purpose: to bring minds together unhindered by Economic Forum in 2012, 2014, and 2015. He is a member of the Australian Threshold 7 – Peter Chrisp
tradition. Created to challenge the education Academy of the Humanities and the Royal Holland Society of Sciences and Threshold 8 – Ben Hubbard
establishment, Macquarie has a rich track record Humanities, and a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Global History
of innovation – Big History is such an innovation. and The Cambridge World History.
The Big History Institute builds upon the pioneering
role that Macquarie University has played in the Andrew McKenna, Executive Director, Big History Institute
evolution of the new field of Big History. It brings Andrew McKenna (BCom LLB UNSW, MIntRel Macquarie) coordinates Big History
together a community of scholars and students as an integrated initiative encompassing research, teaching, and outreach. Andrew
from both the sciences and the humanities who leads the strategic growth and development of the Big History Institute globally.
pursue research questions across disciplinary
boundaries and discover new ways of thinking. Tracy Sullivan, Education Leader, Big History Institute
The Big History Institute is also a global hub for Tracy Sullivan (BA GradDipEd UWS, MA Macquarie) was on the curriculum
educators, members of the public, and partners development team for Big History Project, and oversees implementation in
from the research, government, non-profit, and Australian schools. Tracy coordinates educational initiatives to support the
business sectors. growth and development of Big History globally.
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CONTENTS
8 FOREWORD BY DAVID CHRISTIAN
10 INTRODUCTION
1 THE BIG BANG
16 GOLDILOCKS CONDITIONS 28 THE ATOM AND THE UNIVERSE
18 ORIGIN STORIES 30 THE UNIVERSE GETS BIGGER
20 THE NEBRA SKY DISC 32 THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE
22 ASTRONOMY BEGINS 34 THE BIG BANG
24 EARTH ORBITS THE SUN 36 RE-CREATING THE BIG BANG
26 SEEING THE LIGHT 38 BEYOND THE BIG BANG
2 STARS ARE BORN
42 GOLDILOCKS CONDITIONS
44 THE FIRST STARS
46 THE PUZZLE OF GRAVITY
48 THE FIRST GALAXIES
50 HUBBLE EXTREME DEEP FIELD
3 ELEMENTS ARE FORGED
54 GOLDILOCKS CONDITIONS
56 THE LIFE CYCLE OF A STAR
58 HOW NEW ELEMENTS FORM INSIDE STARS
60 WHEN GIANT STARS EXPLODE
62 MAKING SENSE OF THE ELEMENTS
4 PLANETS FORM
66 GOLDILOCKS CONDITIONS 78 EARTH COOLS 90 CONTINENTS DRIFT
68 OUR SUN IGNITES 80 EARTH SETTLES INTO LAYERS 92 HOW EARTH’S CRUST MOVES
70 THE PLANETS FORM 82 THE MOON’S ROLE 94 OCEAN FLOOR
72 THE IMILAC METEORITE  84 THE CONTINENTS ARE BORN
74 THE SUN TAKES CONTROL 86 DATING EARTH
76 HOW WE FIND SOLAR SYSTEMS 88 ZIRCON CRYSTAL
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5 LIFE EMERGES
98 GOLDILOCKS CONDITIONS 114 LIFE DISCOVERS SUNLIGHT 130 ANIMALS GAIN A BACKBONE
100 STORY OF LIFE 116 OXYGEN FILLS THE AIR 132 RISE OF THE VERTEBRATES
102 LIFE’S INGREDIENTS FORM 118 COMPLEX CELLS EVOLVE 134 JAWS CREATE TOP PREDATORS
104 THE GENETIC CODE 120 SEX MIXES GENES 136 PLANTS MOVE ONTO LAND
106 LIFE BEGINS 122 CELLS BEGIN TO BUILD BODIES 138 WENLOCK LIMESTONE
108 HOW LIFE EVOLVES 124 MALES AND FEMALES DIVERGE 140 ANIMALS INVADE LAND
110 HISTORY OF EVOLUTION 126 ANIMALS GET A BRAIN 142 REINVENTING THE WING
112 MICROBES APPEAR 128 ANIMAL LIFE EXPLODES 144 THE FIRST SEEDS
6 HUMANS EVOLVE
180 GOLDILOCKS CONDITIONS 196 ANCIENT DNA 214 THE INVENTION OF CLOTHING
182 THE PRIMATE FAMILY 198 THE FIRST HOMO SAPIENS 216 HUMANS HARNESS FIRE
184 HOMININS EVOLVE 200 BRINGING UP BABIES 218 BURIAL PRACTICES
186 APES BEGIN TO WALK UPRIGHT 202 HOW LANGUAGE EVOLVED 220 H UMANS BECOME DOMINANT
188 GROWING A LARGER BRAIN 204 COLLECTIVE LEARNING
190 THE NEANDERTHALS 206 THE BIRTH OF CREATIVITY
192 KEBRA NEANDERTHAL 210 HUNTER-GATHERERS EMERGE
194 EARLY HUMANS DISPERSE 212 PALAEOLITHIC ART
7 CIVILIZATIONS DEVELOP
224 GOLDILOCKS CONDITIONS 238 POLLEN GRAINS 252 POPULATION STARTS TO RISE
226 CLIMATE CHANGES 240 FARMERS DOMESTICATE 254 THE FENTON VASE
THE LANDSCAPE ANIMALS 256 EARLY SETTLEMENTS
228 FORAGERS BECOME FARMERS 242 FARMING SPREADS 258 SOCIETY GETS ORGANIZED
230 AFFLUENT FORAGERS 244 MEASURING TIME 260 RULERS EMERGE
232 HUNTERS BEGIN TO GROW FOOD 246 NEW USES FOR ANIMALS 262 LAW, ORDER, AND JUSTICE
234 FARMING BEGINS 248 INNOVATIONS INCREASE YIELDS 264 THE WRITTEN WORD
236 WILD PLANTS BECOME CROPS 250 SURPLUS BECOMES POWER 266 WRITING DEVELOPS
8 INDUSTRY RISES
302 GOLDILOCKS CONDITIONS 316 CONSUMERISM TAKES OFF 332 EDUCATION EXPANDS
304 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 318 E QUALITY AND FREEDOM 334 MEDICAL ADVANCES
306 COAL FUELS INDUSTRY 320 NATIONALISM EMERGES 336 ROAD TO GLOBALIZATION
308 STEAM POWER DRIVES CHANGE 322 THE INDUSTRIAL ECONOMY 338 ENGINES SHRINK THE WORLD
310 THE PROCESS OF 324 THE WORLD OPENS TO TRADE 340 NEWS TRAVELS FASTER
INDUSTRIALIZATION 326 WAR DRIVES INNOVATION 342 SOCIAL NETWORKS EXPAND
312 INDUSTRY GOES GLOBAL 328 COLONIAL EMPIRES GROW 344 GROWTH AND CONSUMPTION
314 GOVERNMENTS EVOLVE 330 SOCIETY TRANSFORMS 346 FINDING THE ENERGY
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146 SHELLED EGGS ARE BORN 160 THE PLANET BLOSSOMS 174 ICE CORES
148 HOW COAL FORMED 162 MASS EXTINCTIONS 176 EARTH FREEZES
150 LIZARD IN AMBER 164 PLANTS RECRUIT INSECTS
152 THE LAND DRIES OUT 166 THE RISE OF MAMMALS
154 REPTILES DIVERSIFY 168 GRASSLANDS ADVANCE
156 BIRDS TAKE TO THE AIR 170 EVOLUTION TRANSFORMS LIFE
158 CONTINENTS SHIFT 172 HOW WE CLASSIFY LIFE
AND LIFE DIVIDES
268 WATERING THE DESERT 282 ÖTZI THE ICEMAN 296 EAST MEETS WEST
270 CITY STATES EMERGE 284 CONFLICT LEADS TO WAR 298 TRADE GOES GLOBAL
272 FARMING IMPACTS THE 286 AGE OF EMPIRES
ENVIRONMENT 288 HOW EMPIRES RISE AND FALL
274 BELIEF SYSTEMS 290 MAKING MONEY
276 GRAVE GOODS 292 UNHEALTHY DEVELOPMENTS
278 CLOTHING SHOWS STATUS 294 TRADE NETWORKS DEVELOP
280 USING METALS
348 NUCLEAR OPTIONS
350 ENTERING THE ANTHROPOCENE
352 CLIMATE CHANGE
354 ELEMENTS UNDER THREAT
356 THE QUEST FOR SUSTAINABILITY
358 WHERE NEXT?
360 INDEX AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
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FOREWORD
I vividly remember a globe map of the world sitting in a Today, more and more schools and universities are
classroom when I was a child. I also remember a geography teaching Big History, and it’s a story we all need to know.
class, taught in a school in Somerset in England, where we In the book you are holding in your hands, you will find
learnt how to draw sections through the earth, showing the a beautifully illustrated account of this story, a sort of
various layers of soil beneath our feet, and how they globe in words and pictures that links knowledge from
connected to other parts of England. For me, the most many different disciplines. Big History shows how our
exciting thing in school was always the sudden connections, world developed, threshold by threshold, from a very
realizing that layers of chalk beneath our feet were made simple early Universe, to the emergence of stars and
from the remains of billions of tiny organisms – called chemistry, and on to a cosmos that contained places
coccolithophores – that had lived millions of years ago, and like our earth on which life itself could emerge.
that the same remains could also be found in layers of chalk
in other parts of England and other countries much further And you’ll also see the strange role played by our own
away. What was Somerset like when the coccolithophores species, humans, in this huge story. We appear at the
were alive? For that matter, where was Somerset back then? very end of the story, but our impact has been so colossal
That’s a question I couldn’t even ask when I was at school that we are beginning to change the planet. We have done
because at that time scientists didn’t know for sure that the something else that is perhaps even more astonishing: from
continents moved around the surface of the earth. our tiny vantage point in the vast Universe, we have figured
out how that universe was created, how it evolved, and how
For me, the globe in the corner of my classroom was a key it became as it is today. That is an amazing achievement,
to all this knowledge. It helped me see the place of Somerset and in this book you will explore the discoveries that
in Britain, of Britain in Europe – so that’s where the Vikings allowed us to piece together this story. This is the world
came from! – and of Europe in the world. Big History is like globe that we need today, early in the 21st century, as
the globe, but it’s much bigger: it includes all the observable we try to manage the huge challenges of maintaining
universe and all observable time, so it reaches back in time our beautiful planet and keeping it in good condition
for 13.8 billion years to the astonishing moment of the Big for those who will come after us.
Bang, when an entire Universe was smaller than an atom.
Big History includes the story of stars and galaxies, of new
elements from carbon – the magical molecule that made life
possible – to uranium, whose radioactivity enabled us not
just to make bombs, but also to figure out when our earth DAVID CHRISTIAN
was formed. It is like a map of all of space and time. And
FOUNDER OF BIG HISTORY
once you start exploring that map, you will be able,
DIRECTOR, BIG HISTORY INSTITUTE
eventually, to say: “So that’s what I’m a tiny part of! That’s
my place in the grand scheme of things! So what’s next?” CO-FOUNDER OF THE BIG HISTORY PROJECT
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