Table Of Content144 Bull.Br.arachnol.Soc.(2001)12(3),144–150
Behavioural repertory and notes on natural history guarding of eggs and nymphs by females or males
of the Neotropical harvestman Discocyrtus oliverioi (Machado & Raimundo, in press).
(Opiliones: Gonyleptidae)* Behavioural repertory studies and natural history
observations are important for understanding the
Abner Elpino-Campos, Wilton Pereira, Kleber Del-Claro biology and ecology of a great variety of organisms
(Alcock, 1997; Krebs & Davies, 1993). Despite the fact
InstitutodeBiologia,
Pós-graduaçãoemEcologiae thatstudiesonharvestmanbiologyhaveincreasedinthe
ConservaçãodeRecursosNaturais, last decade, specially for laniatorean species in the
UniversidadeFederaldeUberlândia, Neotropicalregion(seeGnaspini,1995,1996;Machado
C.P.593,38400-902,UberlândiaMG,Brazil
& Oliveira, 1998; Machado et al., 2000 for references),
ecological and behavioural information for the order is
and
still scarce. Moreover, hitherto there has been no infor-
mation about the behavioural repertory (ethogram) for
Glauco Machado
a harvestman species in the literature. This study
CursodePós-graduaçãoemEcologia,
describes the daily activity pattern, gregariousness, and
MuseudeHistóriaNatural,InstitutodeBiologia,
UniversidadeEstadualdeCampinas, reproductive biology of the harvestman Discocyrtus
C.P.6109,13083-970,CampinasSP,Brazil oliverioi H. Soares (Gonyleptidae: Pachylinae) and
provides the first detailed ethogram for a harvestman
Summary species.
Discocyrtus oliverioi is a Neotropical harvestman that is
commonly found in urban areas of Uberlândia, Minas Methods
Gerais state, south-eastern Brazil. This paper describes
thedailyactivitypattern,gregariousness,andreproductive Study area
biology of this harvestman and provides the first detailed
ethogram for a harvestman species. The study was con- The individuals of Discocyrtus oliverioi used in this
ducted in the laboratory, where 13 females and 5 males study were collected in the Experimental Garden of the
were maintained in two terraria from November 1998 Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (18)53*S, 48)15*W;
to November 1999. Twenty-five behavioural acts were
863m alt.), Minas Gerais state, south-eastern Brazil.
observedandclassifiedinsixgroupsofactivities:foraging,
The garden has a total area of 485m2, predominantly
socialinteractions,resting,exploration,cleaningorgroom-
ing,andreproduction.Theindividualswereinactiveduring covered by trees, and is located in an urban region. The
theday,andatnighttheyforaged,fedandinteractedwith local climate has two well-defined seasons: one dry-cold
other individuals. Five multi-species aggregations of D. fromApriltoSeptember,withmeanmonthlyrainfallof
oliverioi,Discocyrtussp.andIlhaiasp.(Gonyleptidae)were
37.2mm and temperature of 20.9)C, and one wet-warm
foundinthefieldunderfallentrunks.FemalesofD.oliverioi
from October to March, with mean monthly rainfall of
reproduced throughout the year, with the number of eggs
perbatchbeingabout25.Afterlayingeachegg,femalesuse 117.8mmandtemperatureof25.2)C(datafromEstação
theirfirstpairoflegstoattachpiecesofwoodandsoiltothe ClimatológicadoDepartamentodeGeografia,UFUfor
egg. Females provide parental care and stay over the the year 1999).
offspring protecting them against predators for about
22 days. After hatching, the nymphs remain aggregated
under the female for up to one week and then they
Behavioural repertory and ethogram
disperse.
The biology of D. oliverioi was studied in the lab-
Introduction oratory (Laboratório de Ecologia Comportamental
e de Interações, IB-UFU) from November 1998 to
Most harvestman species live in moist environments, November 1999. The animals (13 females and 5 males)
such as caves and forests, where they are frequently weremaintainedintwoterraria(20.5#44.5cm,27.5cm
found under fallen trunks, rocks and among leaf litter high) containing soil, leaves and a branch, with con-
(Edgar, 1990). They are generally photophobic and ditions of light and moisture similar to the field (see
nocturnalforagerswhichshowawidevarietyoffeeding study area). Nineteen individuals of the harvestman
habits, ranging from scavengers to predators (Savory, Ilhaia sp. (Gonyleptidae) and two individuals of Disco--
1938; Phillipson, 1960; Gnaspini, 1996). Although cyrtus sp., which are commonly found together with D.
primarily solitary, some harvestman species can form oliverioi in the field, were also placed in the terraria. All
large aggregations (Coddington et al., 1990; Machado individuals were equally divided in the terraria, and the
et al., 2000). The most common reproductive mode in sexratio(females:males)forthetwocommonestspecies
theorderinvolvescopulation,althoughparthenogenesis in each container was approximately 2:1. The animals
may occur in some species (Phillipson, 1959; Tsurusaki, were fed with live termite workers (Insecta: Isoptera),
1986). The forms of parental investment found in freshly chopped pieces of worms (Annelida: Oligo-
harvestmen show a remarkable variety and among the chaeta), honey solution and an artificial diet for
species of the suborder Laniatores it includes micro- ants (Bhatkar & Whitcomb, 1970).
habitat selection for oviposition, egg-hiding, and Six hours of field observations and another 6h
of observations in the laboratory (20 sessions of
*ReprintrequestsandcorrespondencetoK.Del-Claro. 36min—ab libitum sampling, sensu Altmann, 1974)
A.Elpino-Campos,W.Pereira,K.Del-Claro&G.Machado 145
were carried out at night during January 1999 in order included walking about and touching the substrate with
to identify and describe the behaviours of D. oliverioi. the first two pairs of legs (Table 2). Resting was also a
Descriptions of each behavioural act are presented in frequent behavioural act and the individuals showed a
Table 1. In the next stage, 100h (30 sessions of tendencytorestingroups.Self-groomingactivitieswere
200min—adlibitumsampling,sensuAltmann,1974)of performedbybothmalesandfemales,andleg-threading
quantitative observations were performed throughout was done mainly to clean the first three pairs of legs
theyearoncaptiveindividuals.Theseobservationswere (Table 2). Only females were involved in parental care
conducted between 1900 and 0300h with a red lamp to activities (Table 2).
avoid disturbing the animals. Ten minutes before start- IndividualsofD.oliverioiwereinactiveduringmostof
ing the observations, 10 termite workers and 3 pieces of the day, staying immobile in their shelters (Fig. 1).
worms (each 1cm long) were offered as food. The data Occasionally, some individuals were observed foraging
recorded in these samples were used to prepare an during the day. The harvestmen were most active at
ethogram. night and during this period they foraged, fed and
The activity pattern of D. oliverioi was quantified at interacted with other individuals (conspecifics or not)
1h intervals during a 24h period. Sampling at each (Fig. 1). However, individuals do not seem to leave the
interval consisted of counting during 5min the number shelter every night to forage.
of individuals performing the different types of Food was located upon contact with the second pair
behavioural acts. These observations were carried out of legs and caught with the pedipalps and chelicerae. In
on three different days during January 1999. the laboratory, individuals accepted both live (termites)
VoucherspecimenshavebeendepositedintheMuseu and dead animals (pieces of worms). The item caught
da Biodiversidade do Cerrado (MBC-Uberlândia, wascarriedtothesheltertobeconsumed.Intheshelter,
MG-Brazil) and in the Museu de Zoologia da USP animals were seen fighting for food (n=16) and, in two
(MZSP-São Paulo, SP-Brazil). cases,theitemwasstolenfromtheownerofthefoodby
one conspecific and by one individual of Ilhaia sp.
Results
Behavioural repertory and activity pattern Aggregations
Twenty-five behavioural acts were observed for D. Inthefield,fivemulti-speciesaggregationsofharvest-
oliverioi and classified into six groups of activities: men were found under fallen trunks. Three species were
foraging, social interactions, resting, exploration, clean- resting together: Discocyrtus oliverioi, Discocyrtus sp.
ingorgrooming,andreproduction(Tables1and2).The (Pachylinae), and Ilhaia sp. (Gonyleptinae), all of the
commonest group of activities was exploration, which familyGonyleptidae.Theoccurrenceofeachspeciesand
Foraging
Feeding: Tomanipulateorganicmatterusingthecheliceraeandpedipalpi,andtoinsertitintothemouth(Macías-Ordón˜ez,1997).
Fightingforfood: Anyaggressiontowardanotherindividual(conspecificornot)possessingfood.Itinvolvesattackwithpedipalpiandthefirst
twopairsoflegs.
Socialinteractions
Touchingotherindividuals: Physicalcontactbetweentwoindividuals(conspecificornot)establishedwiththefirstorsecondpairsoflegs,and
withoutaggressivereactionsbyeitherindividual.
Attackingotherindividuals: Aggressiveapproachtowardanotherindividual(conspecificornot).Itinvolvesbouncingthebodyagainst,chasing
orgrabbingtheopponent’slegandpulling(Macías-Ordón˜ez,1997).
Resting
Alone: Toremainisolated,withthelegsretractedoverthebody,andwiththebodyclearlyincontactwiththesubstrate(Macías-Ordón˜ez,1997).
Ingroup: Similartotheabove,butinthissituationagroupofatleast3individualsare0–2cmapartfromeachotherandwithlegsoverlapping
(Machadoetal.,2000).
Exploration
Walkingabout: Towalkwiththesecondpairoflegsextendedsidewayswithouttouchingthesubstrate.
Touchingthesubstrate: Toremaininthesameplace,constantlytappingthesubstratewiththefirstorsecondpairsoflegs.
Self-grooming
Leg-threading: Processofcleaninginwhicheachlegisheldinthecheliceraeandpassedthroughthemouth-partsuntiltheendofthetarsusis
reached(Hillyard&Sankey,1989).
Cleaningthepedipalps: Processinwhichthepedipalpsarepassedthroughthemouth-parts.
Reproduction
Copulation: Toremaininaface-to-facepositionwiththemalegraspingthefemalepedipalpswithhispedipalps.Itincludesintermittentgenital
intromissionsbythemalebyassumingaperpendicularpositionwithrespecttothefemale(Macías-Ordón˜ez,1997).
Oviposition: Toextrudetheovipositorandlayoneeggonthesubstrate.
Broodguarding: Toremainoveranegg-batchwiththebodyincontactwiththeeggsandthelegsretractedoverthebody,orstandinguptapping
theeggswiththefirsttwopairsoflegs.
Protectingeggs: Toclearlyreact(bymoving)attheapproachofanotherindividual(conspecificornot)totheegg-batch.Itinvolvesbouncing
thebodyagainst,chasingorgrabbingtheintruder’slegandpulling.
Table1: DefinitionofeachbehaviouralactoftheharvestmanDiscocyrtusoliverioi.
146 BehaviouralrepertoryofDiscocyrtusoliverioi
the sex ratios in the aggregations are presented in Mating and egg-laying
Table3.Whendisturbedbythecollector,individualsof
Discocyrtus sp. and D. oliverioi fled but individuals of As in most laniatorean harvestmen, there is no
Ilhaia sp. remained motionless with the legs retracted precopulatory courting behaviour in D. oliverioi. Males
over the body—in this position, the dark brown stop in front of females and the copulation occurs
coloration of the animals is extremely cryptic against a immediately without any previous interaction between
background of mud. Even when persistently disturbed thematingpair.Duringcopulationthemaleandfemale
or manipulated the individuals of these three species remaininaface-to-facepositionandthemalegraspsthe
rarely release repugnatorial substances. female’s pedipalps with his pedipalps, while the penis
One complete aggregation was collected, transported passesthroughthefemale’scheliceraeandpenetratesher
tothelaboratory,andplacedinthesameterrarium.The genital opening. Throughout the copulation process the
groupwascomposedoftwomalesandsixfemalesofD. maletouchesthefemale’sbodywithhisfirstandsecond
oliverioi, one male and one female of Discocyrtus sp., pairs of legs—which may be interpreted as copula-
and four males and five females of Ilhaia sp. In the tory courting. At the end of copulation, immediately
laboratory, the individuals of these three species after the mating pair separate, both individuals per-
re-establishedtheaggregationunderatrunk,despitethe form leg-threading behaviour, as also described for
presence of at least two other shelters in the container. D. pectinifemur Mello-Leitão (Matthiesen, 1982).
Isolatedindividualsofthesethreespeciescollectedinthe Females lay their eggs on the same day or on the day
field were placed in another terrarium and also formed after copulation. The females (n=9) were observed
multi-species aggregations. touchingintensivelyaspecificplaceinthesubstratewith
Behaviouralacts Frequencyofbehaviouralacts(%)
Males(n=2) Females(n=6) Total(n=8)
(545) (1623) (2168)
Foraging 6.05 8.31 7.76
Feedingontermites 0.55 3.33 2.63
Feedingonwormpieces 4.40 4.00 4.11
Feedingonhoneysolution 0.18 0.31 0.28
Fightingforfood 0.92 0.67 0.74
Socialinteractions 2.02 1.48 1.61
TouchingindividualofIlhaiasp.withlegs 0.18 0.62 0.51
TouchingindividualofD.oliverioiwithlegs 0.37 0.25 0.28
AttackingindividualofIlhaiasp. 0.55 0.18 0.27
AttackingindividualofD.oliverioi 0.92 0.43 0.55
Resting 12.11 11.39 11.58
Alone 6.24 4.74 5.12
Ingroup 5.87 6.65 6.46
Exploration 69.91 69.37 69.51
Walkingabout 20.18 18.85 19.19
Touchingthesubstratewithfirstlegs 18.72 18.05 18.22
Touchingthesubstratewithsecondlegs 31.01 32.47 32.10
Self-grooming 8.07 6.27 6.74
Leg-threading—firstpair 2.20 2.03 2.08
Leg-threading—secondpair 2.75 1.91 1.94
Leg-threading—thirdpair 2.02 1.29 1.66
Leg-threading—fourthpair 0.73 0.55 0.60
Cleaningthepedipalps 0.37 0.49 0.46
Reproduction 1.28 1.90 1.76
Copulation 1.28 0.43 0.65
Oviposition 0 0.49 0.37
Broodguarding 0 0.49 0.37
ProtectingeggsagainstmalesofD.oliverioi 0 0.06 0.05
ProtectingeggsagainstmalesofIlhaiasp. 0 0.06 0.05
ProtectingeggsagainstfemalesofD.oliverioi 0 0.25 0.17
ProtectingeggsagainstfemalesofIlhaiasp. 0 0.12 0.10
Others 0.56 1.28 1.04
Pressingthebodyagainstthesubstrate,touching
eggs(guardingfemales),andcannibalisingeggs
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
Table 2: Behavioural repertory and frequency of each behavioural act for 8 captive individuals of the harvestman
Discocyrtusoliverioi;n=totalnumberofindividualsobserved,andbetweenparenthesesthetotalnumberof
behaviouralactsobservedforeachcategory.
A.Elpino-Campos,W.Pereira,K.Del-Claro&G.Machado 147
Discocyrtus protecting them against predators (Fig. 2). Females
oliverioi Discocyrtussp. Ilhaiasp. Totalno.of did not leave their eggs to feed, to take water or
Male Female Male Female Male Female individuals
to accomplish other activities apart from guarding.
3 2 4 2 24 31 66 Guarding females attacked any individual, conspecific
2 4 1 1 9 18 35 or not, that approached closer than 2cm to the egg-
1 3 0 2 3 10 19 batch. Nine fights were observed between guarding
2 6 1 1 4 5 19
females and other harvestmen. These fights lasted from
1 1 0 2 1 3 8
5 to 30s and in every case the guarding female won the
17.0% 9.5% 73.5% 147 combat. In one case the attacker (an adult female of
D. oliverioi) ate one egg before the guarding female
reacted. After the intruder’s detection the mother at-
Table3: Speciesoccurrencewithinfivedifferentmulti-speciesaggre-
gations of harvestmen in an urban area of Uberlândia, tackedandsuccessfullyrepelledthecannibalisticfemale.
MinasGeraisstate,south-easternBrazil. Two egg-batches were attacked by fungi, and guarding
females did not eat or remove these eggs or the fungi
from their batches.
The mean number of eggs in an egg-batch was
thefirstandsecondpairsoflegsbeforelayingtheireggs.
25.46&32.34SD (n=9; range =8–69) and the duration
Theovipositioncanlastseveralhoursor,insomecases,
ofembryonicdevelopmentwas21.83&4.30days(n=9).
morethanoneday.Thefemalelaysgroupsofeggs,one
Recentlylaideggswerewhiteincolourandmeasuredon
atatime,inaprocesssimilartothatdescribedforother
average 1.25&0.08mm in diameter (n=20). The eggs
harvestmen (see Juberthie & Mun˜oz-Cuevas, 1971;
darkenedwithdevelopmentandjustbeforehatchingthe
Machado & Oliveira, 1998). After laying each egg,
average diameter was 1.33&0.05mm (n=20). This in-
females of D. oliverioi attach pieces of wood and soil
crease of 13.2% in egg volume is probably caused by
to it with legs I and II. This process can last from 1 to
water intake (Machado & Oliveira, 1998). After hatch-
2 minutes for each egg laid.
ingtheyoungremainedaggregatedunderthefemalefor
up to one week and then they dispersed. Females
reproduced throughout the year (Table 4) and one
Parental care and sources of egg mortality
female in the laboratory oviposited twice 32 days apart;
FemalesofD.oliverioiprovideparentalcareandstay there were 20 eggs in the first clutch but only 8 in the
near their eggs and the first instar juveniles, probably second.
Fig.1: DailyactivitypatternoftheharvestmanDiscocyrtusoliverioi.Thedataarebasedonthreedifferentdaysofsamplesandwereobtainedfrom
8captiveindividuals.Themoonandthesunindicateduskanddawn,respectively.
148 BehaviouralrepertoryofDiscocyrtusoliverioi
1978;Wilson,1976).FortheharvestmanD.oliverioi,25
behavioural acts were observed in which self-grooming,
foraging and exploration formed a large percentage of
the total. The same behavioural pattern has also been
observed for the tailless-whipspider Charinus asturius
(Amblypygi: Charinidae) (Pinto-da-Rocha et al., in
press). As the ethogram of D. oliverioi was done in
the laboratory it is important to stress that captive
conditions can impose constraints for some kinds of
behavioursorpromoteothers.However,forharvestman
species reared in similar conditions, ethograms can be a
starting point for comparisons of energy allocation for
different activities as well as behavioural repertories in
both qualitative and quantitative ways.
At present, harvestmen are not considered to have a
Fig. 2: Marked female of Discocyrtus oliverioi (c.6.5mm) guarding well developed chemical orientation and it is possible
her eggs in the field. Note the debris on the surface of the
thattheyarestronglydependentontouchingforreceiv-
eggs.
ing stimuli from the environment (Macías-Ordón˜ez,
1997).Althoughharvestmenhavenoantennae,theyuse
Discussion
their legs (mainly the second pair) as a sensitive organ
The general behaviour of Discocyrtus oliverioi is to touch the substrate, food and other individuals. In
very similar to that of other Gonyleptidae, especially insects it is common to observe individuals passing
thatofthesubfamilyPachylinae(seeAcostaetal.,1995; theantennaeandthehindlegsthroughthemouthparts
Capocasale & Bruno-Trezza, 1964). All species of this to clean them. Among harvestmen leg-threading is a
subfamily that have been studied are nocturnal foragers corollary activity (Edgar, 1971) and in D. oliverioi
that feed on small, soft-bodied arthropods and/or dead self-grooming was mainly used to clean the sensorial
animalmatter.Theyalsohideduringtheday,sheltering legs. This behaviour has also been recorded for other
in small aggregations. Like Acanthopachylus aculeatus arachnidordersinwhichthespecieshavesensoryorgans
(Kirby), individuals of D. oliverioi carry prey into the inthelegs,suchastailless-whipspiders(Pinto-da-Rocha
shelter before feeding. Although this strategy possibly et al., in press) and whipscorpions (P. Gnaspini, pers.
protects foraging harvestmen from predation, it can comm.), or in the pedipalps, as in pseudoscorpions
result in food robbing by other individuals inside the (Weygoldt, 1969). The legs of harvestmen have several
shelter. chemicalandmechanicalreceptors(Edgar,1963).These
Since there is no information about behavioural rep- organs appear to be highly sensitive, allowing indi-
ertoriesandethogramsforotherharvestmenspecies,itis vidualstorecogniseconspecifics,todeterminethesexof
difficult to make detailed comparisons with the results other individuals and possibly to assess some micro-
obtainedinthepresentstudy.Forants,themoststudied habitat conditions in the selection of oviposition sites.
arthropod group regarding behavioural repertories, it is Thus, leg-cleaning may be necessary to preserve the
commontofind30ormoredifferentacts(seeHölldobler efficiency of these functions (Edgar, 1971).
& Wilson, 1990). In these eusocial insects, behaviours Multi-speciesaggregationsinNeotropicalharvestmen
related to cleaning (grooming) and foraging are com- have been described recently for three other species of
monly the most frequent acts observed (e.g. Brandão, the family Gonyleptidae: Despirus montanus Mello-
Leitão (Mitobatinae), Eugyndes sp. (Pachylinae),
and Holoversia nigra Mello-Leitão (Gonyleptinae)
Month Numberof
(Machado & Vasconcelos, 1998). Although there are
egg-batches
several explanations for the gregariousness in harvest-
November1998 1
men(seeHolmbergetal.,1984),someevidencesuggests
December1998 0
that this behaviour is related to the selection of places
January1999 0
February1999 0 with more suitable microclimatic conditions and/or to
March1999 1 groupdefence(Machadoetal.,2000).Basedonfieldand
April1999 0 laboratory observations it is difficult to assess the role
May1999 2 of the multi-species aggregations of D. oliverioi,
June1999 3
Discocyrtus sp. and Ilhaia sp., but both current hypoth-
July1999 0
eses can be applied. The three species could be sharing
August1999 1
September1999 1 shelters such as fallen trunks which conserve moisture
October1999 0 and are light protected, or may gain benefit from the
November1999 1 presence of other individuals in the group through the
dilutioneffect(sensuKrebs&Davies,1993).Individuals
Table 4: Number of egg-batches of the harvestman
of the three species do not release repugnatorial sub-
Discocyrtus oliverioi produced throughout
stances when disturbed—rejecting the hypothesis of
the year. These data were obtained from 13
captivefemales. defence by the collective action of repulsive secretions
A.Elpino-Campos,W.Pereira,K.Del-Claro&G.Machado 149
(Holmberg et al., 1984; Machado et al., 2000). This ALTMANN, J. 1974: Observational study of behaviour: sampling
result contrasts with other studies on laniatoreans and methods.Behaviour49:227–265.
BHATKAR, A. & WHITCOMB, W. H. 1970: Artificial diet for
reaffirms the need for an experimental approach to
rearingvariousspeciesofants.FlaEnt.53:229–232.
gregarious behaviour in harvestmen.
BRANDÃO,C.R.F.1978:Divisionoflaborwithintheworkercaste
Eggs of harvestmen are exposed to several sources of of Formica perpilosa Wheeler (Hymenoptera: Formicidae).
mortality,suchasinter-andintra-specificpredationand Psyche,Camb.85:229–237.
fungal attack (Gnaspini, 1995; Machado & Oliveira, CANALS,J.1936:Observacionesbiológicasemarácnidosdelordem
Opiliones.Revtachil.Hist.nat.40:61–63.
1998). Several harvestman species are known to cover
CAPOCASALE, R. & BRUNO-TREZZA, L. B. 1964: Biologia
their eggs with debris and leave the offspring without
de Acanthopachylus aculeatus (Kirby, 1819) (Opiliones:
additional care (Canals, 1936; Cokendolpher & Jones, Pachylinae).RevtaSoc.urug.Ent.6:19–32.
1991; Juberthie, 1965, 1972). Like Pachylus quinama- CODDINGTON, J., HORNER, M. & SODERSTROM, E. A.
vidensis Mun˜oz-Cuevas (Juberthie & Mun˜oz-Cuevas, 1990: Mass aggregations in tropical harvestmen (Opiliones,
Gagrellidae:Prionostemmasp.).Revuearachnol.8:213–219.
1971), females of D. oliverioi cover the eggs with debris
COKENDOLPHER, J. C. & JONES, S. R. 1991: Karyotype and
and remain over them actively defending the offspring
notes on the male reproductive system and natural history of
against predators. Covering the eggs with soil particles theharvestmanVononessayi(Simon)(Opiliones:Cosmetidae).
hasbeeninterpretedasawaytocamouflagethemonthe Proc.ent.Soc.Wash.93:86–91.
substrate (Cokendolpher & Jones, 1991; Juberthie, DEQUEIROZ,A.&WIMBERGER,P.H.1993:Theusefulnessof
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1972), but it can also prevent egg dehydration and/or
behavioralandmorphologicalcharacters.Evolution47:46–60.
decrease fungal infection. The latter suggestion is
EDGAR,A.L.1963:Proprioceptioninthelegsofphalangids.Biol.
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of Goniosoma spelaeum, a cavernicolous harvestman from
similar to that found among the New Zealand harvest-
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HILLYARD,P.D.&SANKEY,J.H.P.1989:Harvestmen.Synopses
highly variable morphologically and its monophyly is Br.Fauna(N.S.)4:1–120.
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