Behavior and Environment: The Use of Space by Animals and Men

427 Pages·1995·9.415 MB·English

by  Aristide H. Esser (auth.), Aristide Henri Esser (eds.)

BEHAVIOR AND ENVIRONMENT
The Use of Space by Animals and Men
BEHAVIOR AND ENVIRONMENT
The Use of Space by Animals and Men
Proceedings of an International Symposium held at the
1968 meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
in Dallas, Texas
Edited by Aristide H. Esser
Letchworth Village
Thiells, New York
9:?
PLENUM PRESS • NEW YORK-LONDON • 1971
First Printing - January 1971
Second Printing - February 1972
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 73-142038
ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-1895-8 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-1893-4
DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4684-1893-4
© 1971 Plenum Press, New York
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1971
A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation
227 West 17th Street, New York, N. Y. 10011
United Kingdom edition published by Plenum Press, London
A Division of Plenum Publishing Company, Ltd.
Donington House, 30 Norfolk Street, London W.C. 2, England
All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form
without written permission from the publisher
Preface
The International Symposium on "The Use of Space by Animals and
Men," sponsored by the Animal Behavior Society, took place at the
135th Annual Meeting of the AAAS in Dallas, Texas, on December 29-31,
1968. This book presents the text of all papers and edited discus
sions, as well as the contributions made by several individuals who
were unable ·to attend the Symposium.
The idea of holding the Symposium evolved following my presenta
tion of a paper to the Animal Behavior Society in 1965 [2] on the use
of space by psychiatric patients. Members in attendance at that ses
sion, chaired by G. Gottlieb, shared his interest in my compilation
of human data presented in a measurable spatial context. This plea
sant experience persuaded me that a discussion of space might be
shared as a frame of reference which could open avenues of communica
tion between behavioral scientists, the design community, and the de
cision makers in our society.
Conceptual dichotomies in the study of behavior give rise to
many interpretational difficulties and misunderstandings between bio
logical, psychological and sociological disciplines. The science and
technology of human life is not enhanced by narrow conceptualizations
such as animal vs. human behavior, naturalistic observation vs. labo
ratory experiment, or innate mechanism vs. learned adaptation. At
tempts are made regularly to reconcile these dichotomies with compre
hensive theories intended to provide generally acceptable frameworks
for productive' communication. I tried to bypass discussion of dichoto
mies by establishing a setting that would encourage a mutual willing
ness among the investigators to listen to each other. The Symposium
would be a "neutral" ground with appeal to representatives of factions
who ordinarily would have little opportunity to meet for an open ex
change of ideas. The use we make of 'the space we live in provides us
with an as yet uncontested ground full of common, implicitly recog
nized but ill-defined problems in which scientists of all disciplines
feel a keen involvement.
This proved to be the case. With very few exceptions, the sci
entists who had been invited were in agreement with the format and
expressed a willingness to participate. The participants selected
were chosen primarily for their firsthand research experience with
projects involving spatial behavioral parameters. Other bases of
v
'Ii PREFACE
selection were: study objectives, scientific disciplines and geo
graphical background. It was stipulated that formal presentations
would have to deal preponderantly with data derived from observations
on natural behavior. Subsequent discussions would stress experimental
and cultural influences [3].
It was fully recognized that the Symposium would be merely an
initial chapter in the discussions on the myriad aspects of the use
of space. It was believed impossible to include topics such as the
nature of the experience of space or its relation with time; the hu
man transaction involved in the symbolic representations of space;
the occupation of space by species other than birds and mammals; and
a host of various other considerations.
Some inroads have been made into the study of the use of space
and certain directions of research are now visible. In the first
place, the meetings have emphasized the multidisciplinary character
of this investigation and the necessity for consciously choosing
this approach. The contributions by J.B. Calhoun and A.H. Esser
plead for an integration of findings from many scientific areas. It
is becoming clear that we are witnessing the emergence of a social
biology which has, in effect, a behavioral systems approach. Its
growth is spurred predominantly by data which, in past decades, were
within the domain of either ethology, ecology, or social psychology.
Social biology can now be said to deal with the evolutionary processes
of group-living animals. J.B. Calhoun stresses the role that space
plays in determining the manners of group-living individuals: a par
ticularly striking and mysterious example of this process is demon
strated in his experiments in which the initial number of animals
inhabiting a place determines the final number of animals living when
the population reaches equilibrium. The test postulating a group
toxicity effect (differing reactions noted when a drug is administered
to an animal living alone or in a group [1]) illustrates another mys
terious property of group living. These seemingly unrelated facts
may become organized into a concept which is able to explain why liv
ing in groups is advantageous to the evolution of many species, in
cluding man. In his lecture in the Frontiers of Science series, J.B.
Calhoun illuminated the important ancillary roles of many disciplines
in constructing this concept, a major strategy of Life. In point of
fact, the multidisciplinary discussions during the Symposium proved
that many previous restrictive uses of such concepts as territoriality
and dominance are obsolete. For instance, the contributions of P. Ley
hausen, G. McBride and V.C. Wynne-Edwards lead from these immediately
visible components to an ultimate system structuring our life.
In the second place, an important contribution to the meeting
centered around the derailments in the quality of life subjected to
the constraints of the environment. K. Myers et al. offer much
new experimental information on the biological effects resulting from
different population densities. Supplementary reports and the dis-
PREFACE vii
cussions presented during Sessions 3 and 5 added further material and
highlighted again the need of an interdisciplinary interpretation of
such social factors as density and crowding. Although man's cultural
history has dealt. in some manner. with the various aspects of these
problems. it must be emphasized that the technical solutions at our
disposal to date are completely unsatisfactory; man must ~ind radical
ly different ways of relating to physical and conceptual space.
In the third place. much time was spent discussing the manner
in which animals and man overcome spatial constraints or use the en
vironment itself in communication. E.T. Hall and I. Eibl-Eibesfeldt
provided, in their discussions, new insights into the heritage of hu
man understanding, at the group level as well as at the individual
level. It is important to know how man can use available information
in seeking new avenues toward the compassionate understanding of his
fellow man. Methodological prejudice in this specific area not only
acts to the detriment of the scientific disciplines involved, but di
rectly affects man's relation to ~.
It may be said, in conclusion, that the Symposium increased our
interest in methodology; stress was placed on the importance of ap
plying newly available techniques for data collection and analysis,
and in adopting approaches recently introduced in other disciplines.
Investigators, such as J.R. Tester, D.B. Siniff and C.R. Jensen dis
cussed electronic data processing applied to the animal's use of
space. Other important innovations, particularly techniques for the
notoriously difficult observations of man, were represented in the
photographic techniques of R.E. Herron, E.T. Hall and I. Eibl-Eibes
feldt; and the observation methods discussed by I. Altman and R. Som
mer.
The ultimate importance of the Symposium is achieved in the
actual meeting of the minds on this important issue and the realiza
tion that a parochial approach no longer satisfies the requirements
for an understanding of behavior. An immediate outcome of the mutual
interactions which entered into play at the Symposium is to be found
in the correspondence between K.R. Barbehenn and P. Leyhausen, which
began immediately after the meetings and is published here. We look
forward to more of these dialogues, since so many participants dis
covered, to their amazement and pleasure, that they got along well
with each other. This was beyond expectation and it augurs well for
future multidisciplinary meetings.
The travel and maintenance of the foreign participants of the
Symposium was made possible by the generous contributions of my
friend Dr. M. Thorner, the Schering Corporation of Bloomfield, New
Jersey, the Population Council and the Psychiatric Research Founda
tion, both of New York. Miss Ellen Samson has been of great help
throughout all the phases of this Symposium. The administrative as
sistance of the Animal Behavior Society and the American Association
viii PREFACE
for the Advancement of Science, especially Dr. W.G. Berl and Mr. D.
Thornhill, was deeply appreciated. Mrs. Harriet Goldstein was in
valuable in the final preparation of this book. Dr. Virginia Han
non and Mrs. Lois Cohan offered important assistance in preparing
the bibliographies and proofreading. Mr. N. Lambert prepared the
illustrations, Miss S. Florentine helped in editorial research and
Mrs. L. Bodnar assisted with typing.
I thank all the Symposium participants for their fine cooperation
and the generosity of their contributions. I thank my wife, Ada,
for the constancy of her assistance to the Symposium and to the
preparation of this book.
Aristide Henri Esser
Symposium Organizer
New City, New York
April 69-August 70
REFERENCES
1. Chance, M.R.A.: Aggregation as a factor influencing the toxicity
of sympathomimetic amines in mice. J. Pharmacol. Exp.
Therap., 87:214-219, 1946.
2. Esser, A.H.: Social contact and the use of space in psychiatric
patients. l32nd AAAS Meeting, Berkeley, 1965.
3. The use of space by animals and man. Science,
162:700-702, 1968.
Contents
PREFACE, Aristide H. Esser •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• v
CONTRIBUTORS •••••••.•••• xii i
0 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 ••
CONFERENCE PICTURE .............. xvii
0 ................ " 0 ...... " • 0 0 0 " 0 0 0 ••
SESSION I: TERRITORIALITY AND DOMINANCE
THE IMPORTANCE OF DEFINING SPATIAL BEHAVIORAL PARAMETERS..... 1
A. H. Esser
TEN PHASES OF THE ANIMAL PATH: BEHAVIOR IN FAMILIAR
SITUATIONS. • . . .. . • • . • . . . • . • • • . . . . • . . • • . . . • . . • • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 9
F. Fischer
DOMINANCE AND TERRITORIALITY AS COMPLEMENTED IN MAMMALIAN
SOCIAL STRUCTURE........................................... 22
P. Leyhausen
PREPARED CONTRIBUTIONS FOR DISCUSSION OF SESSION I
Social Organization and Community Composition........... 34
K. Barbehenn
Answer to Barbehenn..................................... 35
P. Leyhausen
Is Territoriality Definable?........................... 36
H. Kaufmann
Social Organization in a Laboratory Colony of Wood Rats
(Neotoma Fuscipes)........................................................ 40
K. P. Kinsey
DISCUSSION OF SESSION I
Panel: C.C. Carpenter (Chairman), R. Ardrey,
J.L. Brereton, K.P. Kinsey, P. Leyhausen,
R.S. Peterson 46
ix
CONTENTS
SESSION II: SPACE AND CONTACT BEHAVIOR
THEORIES OF ANIMAL SPACING: THE ROLE OF FLIGHT, FIGHT AND
DISTAN'CE............................................. 53
SOCI~
G. McBride
INTER-ANIMAL CONTROL OF SPACE ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 69
J. L. Brereton
SPACING AS AFFECTED BY TERRITORIAL BEHAVIOR, HABITAT AND
NUTRITION IN RED GROUSE (LAGOPUS I. SCOTICUS) .•..•......•••• 92
A. Watson and R. Moss
PREPARED CONTRIBUTIONS FOR DISCUSSION OF SESSION II
Intergroup Relations in Rhesus Monkeys (Macacca
Mulat ta) • • . • . • • . • . • . . • • • • • • . • • • . . • . • . . • . • . • . • . . • . • • . . .. 112
H. M. Marsden
The Regulation of Territorial Marking in the Mongolian
Gerbil (Meriones Unguicu1atus) ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 113
D. D. Thiessen
Mapping of Human Movement ••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 115
R. E. Herron
Use of Telemetry As A Means of Studying Spacing and
Behavior of Animals •........•.••.•.•.••.•.•••..••...•.. 117
J. R. Tester, D. B. Siniff and C. R. Jessen
DISCUSSION OF SESSION II
Panel: J.A. Lloyd (Chairman), S.A. Altmann, E.M. Banks,
G. ~Bride, H.M. Marsden, E.W. Menzel, W. Sheppe,
J.G. Vandenbergh 121
SESSION III: POPULATION DENSITY AND CROWDING
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF CONTINUED CROWDING ••••••••••••••••••• 133
D. E. Davis
THE EFFECTS OF VARYING DENSITY AND SPACE ON SOCIALITY AND
HEAL TH IN ANlMA.LS........................................... 148
K. Myers, C. S. Hale, R. Mykytowycz and R. L. Hughes
BEHAVIOR UNDER INVOLUNTARY CONFINEMENT •••••••••••••••••••••••• 188
H. F. Ellenberger
CONTENTS xi
PREPARED CONTRIBUTIONS FOR DISCUSSION OF SESSION III
Social Stimulus and Metabolism of the Brain •••••••••••••• 204
B. L. Welch
DISCUSSION OF SESSION III
Panel: C. H. Southwick (Chairman), J. L. Brereton,
J. B. Calhoun, D. E. Davis, H. F. Ellenberger,
F. Geh1bach, G. Morgan, U. Olin 208
SESSION IV: ORIENTATION AND COMMUNICATION
THE ROLE OF ORIENTING BEHAVIOR IN HUMAN INTERACTION ••••••••••• 217
M. von Cranach
TRANSCULTURAL PATTERNS OF RITUALIZED CONTACT BEHAVIOR ••••••••• 238
I. Eib1-Eibesfe1dt
ENVIRONMENTAL COMMUNICATION ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 247
E. T. Hall
DISCUSSION OF SESSION IV
Panel: W. A. Mason (Chairman), I. Eib1-Eibesfe1dt,
J. M. Fitch, E. T. Hall, P. Leyhausen,
D. Lowenthal 257
SESSION V: COMMUNAL BEHAVIOR AND THE ENVIRONMENT
SPACE USE AND THE SOCIAL COMMUNITY IN ANIMALS AND MEN ••••••••• 267
V. C. Wynne-Edwards
SPATIAL PARAMETERS IN NATURALISTIC SOCIAL RESEARca •••••••••••• 281
R. Sommer
ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF INTERPERSONAL FUNCTIONING ••••••••••••••• 291
1. Altman
PREPARED CONTRIBUTIONS FOR DISCUSSION OF SESSION V
Significance of the Ipsefact ••••••••••••••••• ". • • • • • • • • • •• 307
R. Audy
Community Control Over Space and Population •••••••••••••• 309
G. Morgan
DISCUSSION OF SESSION V
Panel: D. Lowenthal (Chairman), J. B. Calhoun, K. H. Craik,
J. M. Fitch, U. Olin, R. G. Studer, et a1. 312