Table Of ContentBeaches and Coasts
Beaches and Coasts
SECOND EDITION
Richard A. Davis, Jr.
University of South Florida,
Texas, USA
Duncan M. FitzGerald
Boston University,
Massachusetts, USA
This second edition first published 2020
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Edition History
Wiley‐Blackwell (1e, 2004)
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Davis, Richard A., Jr., 1937– author. | FitzGerald, Duncan M., author.
Title: Beaches and coasts / Richard A. Davis, Jr, Texas, US, Duncan M. FitzGerald, Massachusetts, US.
Description: Second Edition. | Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., [2019] |
“Wiley-Blackwell (1e, 2004)”–T.p. verso. | Includes index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2018061448 (print) | LCCN 2019001886 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119334514
(Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781119334552 (ePub) | ISBN 9781119334484 (Cloth)
Subjects: LCSH: Beaches. | Coasts. | Coast changes.
Classification: LCC GB451.2 (ebook) | LCC GB451.2 .D385 2019 (print) | DDC 551.45/7–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018061448
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: Courtesy of Duncan M. Fitzgerald
Set in 10/12pt Warnock by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
v
Brief Contents
1 Coastline Variability and Functions in the Global Environment 1
2 The Earth’s Mobile Crust 15
3 Sediments and Rocks: Materials of Coastal Environments 55
4 Sea‐Level Change and Coastal Environments 69
5 Weather Systems, Extratropical Storms, and Hurricanes 95
6 Waves and the Coast 133
7 Tides of the Ocean 153
8 River Deltas: The Source of Most of our Coastal Sediments 177
9 Estuaries 203
10 Coastal Lagoons 229
11 Tidal Flats 247
12 Coastal Wetlands 281
13 Beach and Nearshore Environment 307
14 Coastal Dunes 339
15 Barrier Systems 359
16 Tidal Inlets 405
17 Glaciated Coasts 453
18 Rocky Coasts 489
Index 513
vii
Contents
1 Coastline Variability and Functions in the Global Environment 1
1.1 Coastal Settings 1
1.2 Population and the Coast 3
1.2.1 History of Coastal Occupation 3
1.3 General Coastal Conditions 3
1.4 Coastal Environments 4
1.5 Historical Trends in Coastal Research 8
Suggested Reading 13
2 The Earth’s Mobile Crust 15
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Earth’s Interior 18
2.3 Plate Boundaries 21
2.3.1 Divergent Boundaries 21
2.3.2 Convergent Boundaries 24
2.3.3 Transform Boundaries 28
2.3.4 Plate Movement 29
2.4 Continental Margins 31
2.4.1 Tectonic Evolution of Continental Margins 34
2.5 T ectonic Coastline Classification 36
2.5.1 Collision Coasts 37
2.5.2 Trailing Edge Coasts 42
2.5.3 Marginal Sea Coasts 46
2.6 T ectonic Effects on Coastal Sediment Supply 47
2.6.1 Continental Drainage 48
2.6.2 Location of Rivers 49
2.6.3 Continental Shelf Width 51
2.7 Summary 52
Reference 53
Suggested Reading 53
3 Sediments and Rocks: Materials of Coastal Environments 55
3.1 Rock Types 55
3.2 Sediment Texture 56
3.2.1 Grain Size 56
3.2.2 Grain Shape 59
3.3 Mineralogy 60
3.4 G eneral Origin and Distribution of Sediments 60
viii Contents
3.4.1 Composition 61
3.4.2 Texture 64
3.5 Summary 65
Reference 66
Suggested Reading 67
4 Sea‐Level Change and Coastal Environments 69
4.1 Changing the Size and Shape of the Container 71
4.1.1 Tectonic Causes 71
4.2 Climate and Sea‐Level Change 74
4.2.1 Seasonal Changes 74
4.2.2 Non‐seasonal Cyclic Changes 75
4.2.3 Long‐term Climatic Effects 76
4.3 Sea‐level Rise due to Sediment Compaction and Fluid Withdrawal 77
4.4 I sostasy 81
4.5 Changes in the Volume of the World Ocean 81
4.5.1 Advance and Retreat of Ice Sheets 81
4.6 Post‐Glacial Rise in Sea Level 85
4.7 Current and Future Sea‐Level Changes 86
4.7.1 Impact of Increasing Rise in Sea Level on Modern Coastal Environments 90
4.8 S ummary 93
References 94
Suggested Reading 94
5 Weather Systems, Extratropical Storms, and Hurricanes 95
5.1 I ntroduction 95
5.2 Basic Atmospheric Circulation and Weather Patterns 97
5.2.1 Wind 97
5.2.2 Atmospheric Circulation 97
5.2.3 Prevailing Winds 101
5.2.4 Cyclonic and Anticyclonic Systems 101
5.2.5 Land‐breezes and Sea‐breezes 102
5.3 M id‐latitude Storms 102
5.3.1 Frontal Weather 103
5.3.2 Cyclogenesis 105
5.3.3 Extratropical Storms 106
5.4 Hurricanes and Tropical Storms 109
5.4.1 Low Latitude Storms 109
5.4.2 Origin and Movement of Hurricanes 110
5.4.3 Anatomy of a Hurricane 113
5.4.4 Hurricanes at the Coast 115
5.5 S ummary 125
Suggested Reading 132
6 Waves and the Coast 133
6.1 W ater Motion and Wave Propagation 136
6.2 W ind Wave Types 140
6.3 D istribution and Transfer of Wave Energy 142
Contents ix
6.4 Other Types of Waves 146
6.5 Wave‐Generated Currents 148
6.6 Summary 150
Suggested Reading 152
7 Tides of the Ocean 153
7.1 Introduction 153
7.2 Tide‐Generating Forces 153
7.2.1 Gravitational Force 153
7.2.2 Centrifugal Force 154
7.2.3 Tide‐Producing Force 156
7.3 Equilibrium Tide 157
7.3.1 Tidal Cycle 157
7.3.2 Orbiting Moon 158
7.3.3 Inclination of Moon’s Orbit 159
7.4 Interaction of Sun and Moon 159
7.5 Effects of Orbital Geometry 161
7.6 Effects of Partitioning Oceans 162
7.7 Tidal Signatures 163
7.8 Tides in Shallow Water 167
7.9 Summary 175
References 176
Suggested Reading 176
8 River Deltas: The Source of Most of our Coastal Sediments 177
8.1 H ow Deltas Develop 178
8.2 D eltas and Sea Level 182
8.3 D elta Environments 184
8.4 D elta Plain 184
8.4.1 Delta Front 186
8.5 D elta Processes 189
8.6 R iver Processes 189
8.7 D elta Classification 190
8.7.1 River‐Dominated Deltas 192
8.7.2 Tide‐Dominated Deltas 193
8.7.3 Wave‐Dominated Deltas 193
8.8 I ntermediate Deltas 195
8.9 H uman Influence 195
8.10 S ummary 200
References 200
Suggested Reading 201
9 Estuaries 203
9.1 E stuarine Hydrology 206
9.1.1 Classification of Estuaries 207
9.1.2 Estuarine Processes 208
9.1.3 Time–Velocity Relationships 209
x Contents
9.1.4 Model Estuary 214
9.1.5 Estuary Types 219
9.2 Human Impact on Estuaries 222
9.3 Summary 227
References 227
Suggested Reading 228
10 Coastal Lagoons 229
10.1 D efinition 229
10.2 Morphology and Setting 229
10.3 G eneral Characteristics 231
10.4 L agoonal Processes 233
10.5 L agoonal Sediments 235
10.6 E xample Lagoons 239
10.7 S ummary 244
Suggested Reading 245
11 Tidal Flats 247
11.1 Morphology of Tidal Flats 247
11.2 Sediments 249
11.3 Organisms 249
11.3.1 Vagrant Organisms 250
11.3.2 Sessile Organisms 250
11.3.3 Limiting Factors 250
11.3.4 Bioturbation 254
11.4 Sedimentary Structures 254
11.5 Tidal Flat Processes 260
11.5.1 Tides 260
11.5.2 Waves 263
11.6 Tidal Channels 265
11.7 Some Examples 267
11.7.1 German Wadden Sea and Jade Bay 267
11.7.2 The Wash 272
11.7.3 Bay of St.‐Malo 273
11.7.4 Bay of Fundy 273
11.8 Human Impact on Tidal Flats 274
11.9 Summary 276
References 278
Suggested Reading 278
12 Coastal Wetlands 281
12.1 Characteristics of a Coastal Marsh 281
12.1.1 Marsh Plants 281
12.1.2 Global Distribution 284
12.2 Marsh Characteristics 285
12.2.1 Marsh Classification 287
12.3 Marsh Sedimentation 289
12.3.1 Sediments 290
Contents xi
12.3.2 Sea Level and Marsh Development 292
12.4 Human Impact on the Marsh Environment 293
12.5 Marsh Summary 293
12.6 Mangrove Coasts 297
12.7 Mangrove Distribution 297
12.7.1 Global Distribution 297
12.7.2 Local 297
12.7.3 Zonation 298
12.8 Mangroves and Coastal Processes 300
12.9 Human Impact on Mangroves 303
12.10 Summary 303
References 305
Suggested Reading 305
13 Beach and Nearshore Environment 307
13.1 N earshore Environment 307
13.2 F oreshore 312
13.3 B ackbeach 322
13.4 Human Impact on Beaches 328
13.5 S ummary 331
Suggested Reading 337
14 Coastal Dunes 339
14.1 Types of Coastal Dunes and Their Distribution 339
14.2 Dune Formation 345
14.3 Dune Dynamics 349
14.3.1 Dune Structures 351
14.4 Human Influence on Dunes 352
14.5 Summary 353
Suggested Reading 357
15 Barrier Systems 359
15.1 I ntroduction 359
15.2 P hysical Description 359
15.3 D istribution and Coastal Setting 362
15.4 Summary 366
15.5 B arrier Types 366
15.5.1 Barrier Spits 367
15.5.2 Welded Barriers 374
15.5.3 Barrier Islands 376
15.6 P rograding, Retrograding, and Aggrading Barriers 380
15.6.1 Prograding Barriers 381
15.6.2 Retrograding Barriers 384
15.6.3 Aggrading Barriers 388
15.7 B arrier Stratigraphy 390
15.8 B arrier Coast Morphology 393
15.8.1 Hayes Models 394
15.8.2 Georgia Bight 396
