Table Of ContentBasics of Social Research:
Qualitative & Quantitative Approaches
W. Lawrence Neuman
Third Edition
ISBN 10: 1-292-02034-2
ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02034-1
Pearson Education Limited
Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
England and Associated Companies throughout the world
Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsoned.co.uk
© Pearson Education Limited 2014
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the
prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom
issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark
in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such
trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affi liation with or endorsement of this
book by such owners.
ISBN 10: 1-292-02034-2
ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02034-1
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Printed in the United States of America
111222331368369258041151771915979
P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R AR Y
Table of Contents
Glossary
W. Lawrence Neuman 1
1. Doing Social Research
W. Lawrence Neuman 15
2. Theory and Social Research
W. Lawrence Neuman 39
3. Ethics in Social Research
W. Lawrence Neuman 67
4. Reviewing the Scholarly Literature and Planning a Study
W. Lawrence Neuman 89
5. Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement
W. Lawrence Neuman 131
6. Qualitative and Quantitative Sampling
W. Lawrence Neuman 165
7. Survey Research
W. Lawrence Neuman 191
8. Experimental Research
W. Lawrence Neuman 227
9. Nonreactive Research and Secondary Analysis
W. Lawrence Neuman 257
10. Analysis of Quantitative Data
W. Lawrence Neuman 281
11. Field Research and Focus Group Research
W. Lawrence Neuman 309
12. Analysis of Qualitative Data
W. Lawrence Neuman 341
I
333689313
13. Writing the Research Report
W. Lawrence Neuman 363
Bibliography
W. Lawrence Neuman 381
Index 393
II
GLOSSARY
Following the definition, the number in parentheses Applied social research Research that attempts to solve
indicates the chapter in which the term first appears in a concrete problem or address a specific policy ques-
the text and is in the Key Terms section. Italicized terms tion and that has a direct, practical application. (1)
refer to terms defined elsewhere in this glossary. Association A co-occurrence of two events, factors,
Abstract A term with two meanings in literature characteristics, or activities, such that when one
reviews: a short summary of a scholarly journal arti- happens, the other is likely to occur as well. Many
cle that usually appears at its beginning, and a refer- statistics measure this. (2)
ence tool for locating scholarly journal articles. (4) Assumption Parts of social theories that are not tested,
Acceptable incompetent When a field researcher pre- but act as starting points or basic beliefs about the
tends to be less skilled or knowledgeable in order world. They are necessary to make other theoretical
to learn more about a f ield site. (11) statements and to build social theory. (2)
Accretion measures Nonreactive measures of the res- Attitude of strangeness A technique in field research in
idue of the activity of people or what they leave which researchers study a field site by mentally adjust-
behind. (9) ing to “see” it for the first time or as an outsider. (11)
Action research A type of a pplied social research in Attributes The categories or levels of a v ariable. (4)
which a researcher treats knowledge as a form of Axial coding A second coding of qualitative data after
power and abolishes the division between creat- open coding. The researcher organizes the codes,
ing knowledge and using knowledge to engage in develops links among them, and discovers key ana-
political action. (1) lytic categories. (13)
Alternative hypothesis A hypothesis paired with a null Back translation A technique in comparative
hypothesis stating that the i ndependent variable has research for checking l exicon equivalence.
an effect on a d ependent variable. (4) A researcher translates spoken or written text
Analytic domain In domain analysis, a type of domain from an original language into a second language,
a researcher develops using categories or terms he then translates the same text in the second lan-
or she developed to understand a social setting. (13) guage back into the original language, then com-
pares the two original language texts. (12)
Analytic memo’s The written notes a qualitative
researcher takes during data collection and after- Bar chart A display of q uantitative data for one variable
ward to develop concepts, themes, or preliminary in the form of rectangles where longer rectangles
generalizations. (11) indicate more cases in a variable category. Usually, it
is used with discrete data and there is a small space
Anonymity Research participants remain anonymous
between rectangles. They can have a horizontal or
or nameless. (3)
vertical orientation. Also called bar graphs. (10)
Appearance of interest A technique in field research
in which researchers maintain relations in a field Basic social research Research designed to advance
site by pretending to be interested and excited by fundamental knowledge about the social world. (1)
the activities of those studied, even though they are Bivariate statistics Statistical measures that involve
actually uninterested or very bored. (11) two variables only. (10)
From Glossary of Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, Third Edition. W. Lawrence
Neuman. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
1
GLOSSARY
Blame analysis A counterfeit argument presented geographic areas in which aggregated units are ran-
as if it were a theoretical explanation that substi- domly selected then s amples are drawn from the
tutes attributing blame for a causal explanation sampled aggregated units, or clusters. (6)
and implies an intention or negligence, or respon-
Code sheets Paper with a printed grid on which a
sibility for an event or situation. (2)
researcher records information so that it can be
Body of a table The center part of a c ontingency easily entered into a computer. It is an alternative
table. It contains all the cells, but not the totals to the direct-entry method and using optical-scan
or labels. (10) sheets. (10)
Bogardus Social Distance Scale A scale that measures Codebook A document that describes the procedure
the distance between two or more social groups for coding variables and their location in a format
by having members of one group express the for computers. (10)
point at which they feel comfortable with various Coding The process of converting raw information
types of social interaction or closeness with mem- or data into another form for analysis. In c ontent
bers of the other group(s). (5) analysis, it is a means for determining how to con-
Case study Research, usually qualitative, on one or a vert symbolic meanings in text into another form,
small number of cases in which a researcher care- usually numbers (see Coding system) ; in quantita-
fully examines a large number of details about each tive data analysis, it is a means for assigning num-
case. (1) bers; and in qualitative data analysis, it is a series
of steps for reading raw notes and assigning codes
Causal explanation A statement in social theory
or conceptual terms (see A xial coding, Open coding,
about why events occur that is expressed in terms
Selective coding ). (9)
of causes and effects. They correspond to associa-
tions in the empirical world. (2) Coding system A set of instructions or rules used in
content analysis to explain how to systematically
Cell of a table A part of the body of a table. In a con-
convert the symbolic content from text into q uan-
tingency table, it shows the distribution of cases
titative data. (9)
into categories of variables as a specific number or
Cohort study A type of longitudinal research in which
percentage. (10)
a researcher focuses on a category of people who
Central limit theorem A lawlike mathematical rela-
share a similar life experience in a specified time
tionship that states whenever many random sam-
period. (1)
ples are drawn from a population and plotted, a
Compensatory behavior A threat to internal validity
normal distribution is formed, and the center of
that occurs when participants in the control group
such a distribution for a variable is equal to its
modify their behavior to make up for not getting
population parameter. (6)
the treatment. (8)
Citation Details of a scholarly journal article’s location
Competent insider performance A method field
that helps people find it quickly. (4)
researchers use to demonstrate the authenticity and
Classical experimental design An e xperimental design trustworthiness of a study by the researcher “pass-
that has random assignment, a c ontrol group, an ing” as a member of the group under study. (11)
experimental group, and pretests and posttests for
Computer-assisted telephone interviewing
each group. (8)
(CATI) Survey research in which the interviewer
Classification concept Complex, multidimensional sits before a computer screen and keyboard and uses
concepts that have subtypes. They are parts of the computer to read questions that are asked in a
social theories between one simple concept and a telephone interview, then enters answers directly
full theoretical explanation. (2) into the computer. (7)
Closed-ended question A type of survey research ques- Concept cluster A collection of interrelated ideas that
tion in which respondents must choose from a share common assumptions, belong to the same
fixed set of answers. (7) larger social theory, and refer to one another. (2)
Cluster sampling A type of random sample that uses Conceptual definition A careful, systematic definition
multiple stages and is often used to cover wide of a construct that is explicitly written to clarify
2
GLOSSARY
one’s thinking. It is often linked to other concepts of categories for two variables for logically impos-
or theoretical statements. (5) sible cases. (10)
Conceptual equivalence In historical-comparative Contingency question A type of survey research question
research, the issue of whether the same ideas or con- in which the respondent next goes to one or another
cepts occur or can be used to represent phenomena later question based on his or her answer. (7)
across divergent cultural or historical settings. (12) Contingency table A table that shows the cross-tab-
Conceptual hypothesis A type of hypothesis in which the ulation of two or more variables. It usually shows
researcher expresses variables in abstract, conceptual bivariate quantitative data for variables in the form
terms and expresses the relationship among variables of percentages across rows or down columns for
in a theoretical way. (5) the categories of one variable. (10)
Conceptualization The process of developing Continuous variable’s Variables measured on a con-
clear, rigorous, systematic conceptual definitions tinuum in which an infinite number of finer grada-
for abstract ideas/concepts. (5) tions between variable a ttributes are possible. (5)
Concurrent validity Measurement validity that relies Control group The group that does not get the t reat-
on a preexisting and already accepted measure ment in experimental research. (8)
to verify the indicator of a construct. (5) Control variable A “third” variable that shows
Confederate A person working for the experimenter whether a bivariate relationship holds up to alter-
who acts as another participant or in a role in front native explanations. It can occur before or between
of participants to deceive them for an experiment’s other variables. (10)
cover story. (8) Convenience sampling A type of nonrandom sample
Confidence interval A range of values, usually a little in which the researcher selects anyone he or she
higher and lower than a specific value found in a happens to come across. (6)
sample, within which a researcher has a specified Covariation The idea that two variables vary together,
and high degree of confidence that the population such that knowing the values in one variable pro-
parameter lies. (6) vides information about values found in another
Confidentiality Information with participant names variable. (10)
attached, but the researcher holds it in confidence Cover sheet One or more pages at the beginning of a
or keeps it secret from the public. (3) questionnaire with information about an interview
Confounding variable’s In experimental research, or respondent. (7)
variables or factors that are not part of the intended Cover story A type of deception in which the experi-
hypothesis being tests, but that have effects on vari- menter tells a false story to participants so they
ables of interest and threaten internal validity. (8) will act as wanted and do not know the true
Content analysis Research in which one examines pat- hypothesis.
terns of symbolic meaning within written text, audio, Cover term In domain analysis, the name for a domain
visual, or other communication medium. (1) (9) (i.e., a cultural setting or site in which people regu-
Content validity Measurement validity that requires larly interact and develop a set of shared understand-
that a measure represent all the aspects of the con- ings) or “miniculture” that can be analyzed. (13)
ceptual definition of a construct. (5) Criterion validity Measurement validity that relies on
Context effect An effect in survey research when an some independent, outside verification. (5)
overall tone or set topics heard by a respondent Crossover design A design to reduce creating inequality;
affects how he or she interprets the meaning of it is when a study group that gets no treatment in the
subsequent questions. (7) first phase of the experiment becomes the group with
Contextual equivalence The issue in h istorical-com- the treatment in the second phase, and vice versa. (3)
parative research of whether social roles, norms, Cross-sectional research Research in which a
or situations across different cultures or historical researcher examines a single point in time or takes
periods are equivalent or can be compared. (12) a one-time snapshot approach. (1)
Contingency cleaning Cleaning data using a computer Cross-tabulation Placing data for two variables in a
in which the researcher looks at the combination contingency table to show the number or percentage
3
GLOSSARY
of cases at the intersection of categories of the two cases purposely as a way to provide greater insight
variables. (10) into social processes or a setting. (6)
Curvilinear relationship A relationship between two Diffusion of treatment A threat to internal validity
variables such that as the values of one variable that occurs when the treatment “spills over” from
increase, the values of the second show a chang- the experimental group, and control group research
ing pattern (e.g., first decrease then increase then participants modify their behavior because they
decrease). It is not a l inear relationship. (10) learn of the t reatment. (8)
Data The e mpirical evidence or information that a per- Direct-entry method A method of entering data into
son gathers carefully according to established rules or a computer by typing data without code or optical
procedures; it can be qualitative or quantitative. (1) scan sheets. (10)
Debrief When a researcher gives a true explanation of Direct observation notes Notes taken in field research
the experiment to research participants after using that attempt to include all details and specifics of
deception. (8) what the researcher heard or saw in a field site. They
Deception When an experimenter lies to research par- are written in a way that permits multiple interpre-
ticipants about the true nature of an experiment tations later. (11)
or creates a false impression through his or her Discrete variables Variables in which the attributes can
actions or the setting. (8) be measured only with a limited number of dis-
Deductive approach An approach to inquiry or social tinct, separate categories. (5)
theory in which one begins with abstract ideas and
Domain analysis A method of qualitative data analy-
principles then works toward concrete, e mpirical
sis in which a researcher describes and reveals the
evidence to test the ideas. (2)
structure of a cultural domain. (13)
Defocusing A technique early in field research when
Double-barreled question A problem in s urvey
the researcher removes his or her past assump-
research question wording that occurs when two
tions and preconceptions to become more open to
ideas are combined into one question, and it is
events in a f ield site. (11)
unclear whether the answer is for the combina-
Demand characteristics A type of r eactivity in which tion of both or one or the other question. (7)
the participants in e xperimental research pick up
Double-blind experiment A type of experimental
clues about the hypothesis and alter their behavior
research in which neither the research participants
accordingly. (8)
nor the person who directly deals with the research
Dependent variable The effect variable that is last and participants for the experimenter knows the specif-
results from the causal variable(s) in a c ausal expla- ics of the experiment. (8)
nation. Also the variable that is measured in the pre-
Ecological fallacy Something that appears to be a
test and posttest and that is the result of the t reatment
causal explanation but is not. It occurs because of
in experimental research. (4)
confusion about units of analysis. A researcher has
Descriptive research Research in which one “paints a empirical evidence about an a ssociation for large-
picture” with words or numbers, presents a profile, scale units or huge aggregates, but overgeneralizes
outlines stages, or classifies types. (1) to make theoretical statements about an a ssociation
Descriptive statistics A general type of simple statistics among small-scale units or individuals. (4)
used by researchers to describe basic patterns in Ecological validity A way to demonstrate the authen-
the data. (10) ticity and trustworthiness of a field research study
Design notation The name of a symbol system used by showing that the researcher’s descriptions of the
to discuss the parts of an experiment and to make field site matches those of the members from the
diagrams of them. (8) site and that the researcher was not a major dis-
Deviant case sampling A type of n onrandom sample, turbance. (11)
especially used by qualitative researchers, in which Editing A step in the writing process that is part of
a researcher selects unusual or nonconforming rewriting, in which a writer cleans up and tightens
4
GLOSSARY
the language and checks grammar, verb agreement, applied, nonspecialist audience. Usually a little lon-
usage, sentence length, and paragraph organization ger than an a bstract. (14)
to improve communication. (14) Exhaustive attributes The principle that response cat-
Elaboration paradigm A system for describing pat- egories in a scale or other measure should provide a
terns evident among tables when a b ivariate con- category for all possible responses (i.e., every pos-
tingency table is compared with partials after the sible response fits into some category). (5)
control variable has been added. (10) Existing statistics research Research in which one
Empirical evidence The observations that people expe- examines numerical information from govern-
rience through their senses—touch, sight, hearing, ment documents or official reports to address new
smell, and taste; these can be direct or indirect. (1) research questions. (1)
Empirical generalization A quasi-theoretical state- Experimental design Arranging the parts of an experi-
ment that summarizes findings or regularities in ment and putting them together. (8)
empirical evidence. It uses few if any abstract con- Experimental group The group that receives the t reat-
cepts and only makes a statement about a recurring ment in experimental research. (8)
pattern that researchers observe. (2) Experimental mortality Threats to internal validity
Empirical hypothesis A type of h ypothesis in which the due to participants failing to participate through
researcher expresses variables in specific terms and the entire experiment. (8)
expresses the association among the measured indica- Experimental realism External validity in which the
tors of observable, e mpirical evidence. (5) experiment is made to feel realistic, so that experi-
Empty boxes A name for conceptual categories in an mental events have a real impact on participants.
explanation that a researcher uses as part of the Experimental research Research in which one inter-
illustrative method of qualitative data analysis. (13) venes or does something to one group of people
Equivalent time-series design An experimental but not to another, then compares results for the
design in which there are several repeated two groups. (1)
pretests, posttests, and t reatments for one group Experimenter expectancy A type of reactivity due to
often over a period of time. (8) the experimenter indirectly making participants
Erosion measures Nonreactive measures of the wear aware of the hypothesis or desired results. (8)
or deterioration on surfaces due to the activity of Explanation pattern A pattern in the e laboration para-
people. (9) digm in which the bivariate contingency table shows
Error of segregation A mistake that can occur when a relationship, but the p artials show no relationship
writing qualitative research in which a writer and the control variable occurs prior to the indepen-
separates concrete e mpirical details from abstract dent variable. (10)
ideas. (14) Explanatory research Research that focuses on why
Ethnography An approach to f ield research that events occur or tries to test and build social theory. (1)
emphasizes providing a very detailed description of Exploratory research Research into an area that has
a different culture from the viewpoint of an insider not been studied and in which a researcher wants
in that culture in order to permit a greater under- to develop initial ideas and a more focused research
standing of it. (11) question. (1)
Ethnomethodology An approach to social science that External consistency A way to achieve r eliability of
combines philosophy, social theory, and method data in field research in which the researcher cross-
to study. (11) checks and verifies qualitative data using multiple
Evaluation research A type of a pplied research in which sources of information. (11)
one tries to determine how well a program or policy External criticism In historical research, a way to
is working or reaching its goals and objectives. (1) check the authenticity of primary sources by accu-
Executive summary A summary of a research project’s rately locating the place and time of its creation
findings placed at the beginning of a report for an (e.g., it is not a forgery). (12)
5
