Table Of ContentBasic Linguistic Theory 3
Basic Linguistic Theory
R. M. W. Dixon
ThethreevolumesofBasicLinguisticTheoryprovideanewandfundamental
characterizationofthenatureofhumanlanguagesandacomprehensiveguide
totheirdescriptionandanalysis.Thefirstvolumeaddressesthemethodology
forrecording,analysing,andcomparinglanguages.Volumes2and3examine
and explain every underlying principle of grammatical organization and
considerhowandwhygrammarsvary.
Volume1
Methodology
Volume2
GrammaticalTopics
Volume3
FurtherGrammaticalTopics
“BasicLinguisticTheoryisdestinedtobeamodernclassic.”
N.J.Enfield,MaxPlanckInstituteforPsycholinguistics,Nijmegen
“Amonumentalachievement.Virtuallywithoutprecedentinthefieldoflin-
guistics.”
MartinHaspelmath,MaxPlanckInstitutefor
EvolutionaryAnthropology,Leipzig
“Thesebooksaremonumentalanddestinedtobecomeclassics,equatableto
thetwovolumesentitledLanguagebySapir(1921)andBloomfield(1933),and
to Givón’s Syntax, volumes 1 (1984) and 2 (1990) but in each case surpassing
them in scope, detail, rigor, and coherence. Dixon presents a complete, fully
articulated, and cohesive explication of grammar, with extensive elaboration
on every major grammatical structure found in the world’s languages, as
well as many minor ones.... This is a masterwork...a lasting reference for
grammarwriters,typologists,grammaticaltheorists,andallthosefascinated
bythecomplexitiesoflinguisticsystemsandgrammaticalanalysis.”
CarolGenetti,Language
“Extremelyinformative,exceedinglyuseful,andprofoundlyinspiring.These
arebooksIcanrecommendtoeverygraduatestudent,toeverylinguisticfield
worker.”
RenévandenBerg,StudiesinLanguage
AcompletelistofR.M.W.Dixon’sbooksmaybefoundonpp.546–47
Basic Linguistic
Theory
Volume 3 Further Grammatical Topics
R. M. W. DIXON
CairnsInstitute
JamesCookUniversity
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GreatClarendonStreet,Oxfordox26dp
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Outline contents for whole work
Volume 1 Methodology
1 Basics 1
2 Principlestofollow 57
3 Grammaroverview 92
4 Analysis,argumentation,andexplanation 182
5 Terminology 214
6 Doingtypology 242
7 Phonology 264
8 Lexicon 289
9 Fieldlinguistics 309
Volume 2 Grammatical topics
10 Grammaticalwordandphonologicalword 1
11 Distinguishingnounandverb 37
12 Theadjectiveclass 62
13 Transitivity 115
14 Copulaclausesandverblessclauses 159
15 Pronounsanddemonstratives 189
16 Possession 262
17 Relativeclauseconstructions 313
18 Complementclausesandcomplementationstrategies 370
Volume 3 Further grammatical topics
19 Non-spatialsetting 1
20 Numbersystems 45
21 Negation 89
22 Reflexiveandreciprocalconstructions 138
23 Pivots,passives,andantipassives 197
24 Causatives 239
25 Applicatives 294
26 Comparativeconstructions 343
27 Questions 376
28 Languageandtheworld—explanationsnowandneeded 434
Appendix1Sourcematerials 457
Appendix2Howmanylanguages? 463
Contents
Listoftables xii
Howtoreadthisbook xiii
Preface xiv
Abbreviationsandconventions xvii
19. Non-spatialsetting 1
19.1. Introduction 1
19.2. Outlineofparameters 5
19.2.1. Thestatusoffuture 6
19.2.2. Anoteonterminology 8
19.3. Tense 9
19.3.1. Temporalrealizationoftense 12
19.3.2. Markednessandneutralization 16
19.3.3. Spaceandtime 19
19.3.4. Lexicaltimewords 20
19.4. Realisandirrealis 22
19.4.1. Modalities 25
19.5. Degreeofcertainty 29
19.6. Phaseofactivity 30
19.7. Completion—perfect andimperfect 31
19.8. Boundedness—telicandatelic 33
19.9. Temporalextent—punctualanddurative 33
19.10. Composition—perfectiveandimperfective 34
19.10.1. Aspect 35
19.11. Frequencyanddegree 36
19.12. Speedandease 37
19.13. Evidentiality 38
19.14. Summary 39
19.15. Whattoinvestigate 40
Sourcesandnotes 41
20. Numbersystems 45
20.1. Introduction 45
20.2. Sizeofsystems;absoluteandrelativereference 46
20.2.1. Collective,distributive,andassociative 49
20.3. Obligatoryandoptionalnumbersystems 51
20.4. Mixedsystems 52
20.5. Realization 55
contents vii
20.6. Wherenumberisshown 57
20.6.1. Pronouns 57
20.6.2. Demonstrativesandinterrogativewords 59
20.6.3. Nounphrases 60
20.6.4. Verbs 62
20.7. Markedness 66
20.8. Interrelationswithothergrammaticalcategories 69
20.9. Lexicalnumberwordsandcounting 71
20.9.1. Developingandborrowingnumberwords 75
20.9.2. Grammaticalstatusoflexicalnumberwords 77
20.9.3. Verb‘count’andnoun‘number’ 79
20.10.Historicaldevelopment 80
20.11. Summary 82
20.12. Whattoinvestigate 84
Sourcesandnotes 85
21. Negation 89
21.1. Introduction 89
21.2. Negationofmainclause 94
21.2.1. Shownbysyntacticparticles 95
21.2.2. Shownbymorphologicalprocesses 97
21.2.3. Requiringanauxiliaryverb 99
21.2.4. Negatorasamainverb 101
21.2.5. Multiplemarkingofanegation 102
21.2.6. Negationinco pulaandverblessclauses 105
21.2.7. Negativeimperatives 107
21.2.8. Grammaticalfeatures 111
21.3. Scope 112
21.3.1. Negatingasubordinateclause 113
21.3.2. Negatingaclausalconstituent 115
21.3.3. NegationwithinanNP 117
21.4. Negativewords 118
21.4.1. Negativeindefinites 119
21.4.2. Inherentlynegativelexemes 122
21.4.3. Derivingnegativelexemes 124
21.5. Doublenegation 126
21.6. Tags 127
21.7. Dependencieswithothergrammaticalsystems 128
21.8. Independentpolarityforms,‘no’and‘yes’ 129
21.9. Summary 132
21.10. Whattoinvestigate 133
Sourcesandnotes 134
viii contents
22. Reflexiveandreciprocalconstructions 138
22.1. Introduction 138
22.2. Meanings 145
22.2.1. Thesemanticsofreflexives 146
22.2.2. Thesemanticsofreciprocals 147
22.3. Preliminarygeneralizations 151
22.4. Thepronountechnique 156
22.4.1. Transitivity 156
22.4.2. Coreferencepossibilities 160
22.4.3. Forms 163
22.4.4. Extendedmeaningsofreflexiveandreciprocal
pronouns 166
22.4.5. Reflexives-self andowninEnglish 167
22.4.6. Reciprocalpronounseachotherandoneanotherin
English 170
22.5. Theverbalderivationtechnique 172
22.5.1. Rangeoffunctionsandmeanings 173
22.5.2. Coreferencepossibilitiesandtransitivity 177
22.6. Othertechniques 179
22.7. Combiningtechniques 182
22.8. Inherentlyreciprocalandinherentlyreflexiveverbs 185
22.9. Origins,spaceandtime 186
22.10. Summary 187
22.11. Whattoinvestigate 189
Sourcesandnotes 192
23. Pivots,passivesandantipassives 197
23.1. Topicandpivot 197
23.2. Passivesandantipassives 205
23.2.1. Typesofmarking 210
23.2.2. WhichargumentsmaybecomeS 213
23.2.3. Argumentmovedoutofthecore 216
23.2.4. Rationale 217
23.2.5. Meanings 222
23.2.6. Non-canonicalpassiveandantipassives 225
23.2.7. Whatisnotapassiveorantipassive 228
23.3. Summary 230
23.4. Whattoinvestigate 232
Sourcesandnotes 235
24. Causatives 239
24.1. Introduction 239
24.2. Formalmechanisms 242
contents ix
24.2.1. Morphologicalprocesses 242
24.2.2. Twoverbsinonepredicate 243
24.2.3. Periphrasticcausatives 245
24.2.4. Lexicalcausatives 247
24.2.5. Exchangingauxiliaries 249
24.3. Syntax 250
24.3.1. Ofintransitives 253
24.3.2. Oftransitives 255
24.3.3. Ofextendedtransitives 263
24.3.4. Doublecausatives 266
24.4. Semantics 268
24.5. Meaning-mechanismcorrelations 281
24.6. Othermeanings,otherfunctions 284
24.6.1. Causativeswhichdon’tcause 284
24.6.2. Multi-functionalforms 286
24.7. Summary 287
24.8. Whattoinvestigate 289
Sourcesandnotes 290
25. Applicatives 294
25.1. Canonicalapplicativederivations 295
25.2. Quasi-applicatives 299
25.3. Meanings 301
25.3.1. Goal 301
25.3.2. Instrumental 306
25.3.3. Comitative 308
25.3.4. Locative 310
25.4. Applicativearrays 312
25.5. Syntax 318
25.5.1. Peripheralfunctionsforapplicativearguments 318
25.5.2. WhathappenstotheoriginalO? 319
25.5.3. Theroleofboundpronouns 323
25.5.4. Severalapplicativestogether 324
25.6. Functions 326
25.7. Furtherrealizations 329
25.8. Otherfunctions,othermeanings 332
25.9. Terminology 334
25.10. Summary 335
25.11. Whattoinvestigate 336
Sourcesandnotes 337
26. Comparativeconstructions 343
26.1. Theprototypicalcomparativescheme 343
