Table Of ContentBasavaraj Naikar's Sangya-Balya:
Betrayal: A Folk Tragedy
s.JOHN PETER JOSEPH
...Suitthe action to the word.the word tothe action, withthis
special observance, that you o'erstep nol the modesty of na
lure. For anything so overdone is from the purpose ofplaying,
whose end, both at the first and now, .....as and is 10hold. as
"twere, the mirror up 10 nature, 10 show virtue her own
feature. scorn her own image.and thevery age andbodyofthe
time his form and pressure.
(Hamll'/. Act III. Scene ii., lines 15-21]
Drama constitutes an integral part ofanycivilised society.Itis true thatthe dramatic
instinct is quite universal. The theatre whether in sacred or secular form hasnever
failedto hold itspowerfulappeal to man.Undeniablyevery nationand every race hasits
owndramatic history. Drama as the best form of literary composition mirrors the social,
politicalandculturalhistoryofapeopleand thecharacteristicnature ofthegeniusofany
nationcannotbe fully comprehended andappreciated withoutitsstudy.Since 'anation is
known by its theatre', the impact ofdrama and theatre over the masses cannot beeasily
ignored.One can learn about the character of aparticularnationmorefrom its immortal
playsthanfromthepagesofaformalhistoricaltreatiseortherecordsofthenation.Drama,
which istheoutcomeofhumannatureandhumancharacter,"isanimitationofpeople,their
environment, emotions, feelings, situations they are found in,mental and physical states
andactions"(M.L.Varadpande273).InthewordsofGB.Tennyson."Dramaisastorythat
people act out on a stage before spectators" (3). Eric Bentley observes:"The theatrical
situation.reducedtoaminimum.isthatAimpersonatesBwhileClookson"(150).Marjorie
Boulton remarks:"Drama,atits best.isanexerciseoftheimaginationnotonly forwriter,
producerand actors but also for the audience.The writerofplays createscharactersand
places them in situationsthatare interesting and insome way relevanttogeneralhuman
experience"(196).Therichvarietyofthedramaasanartformanditsindispensablehuman
naturehave been remarkablyhighlightedandsummedupbythegreattheatricalproducer,
MaxReinhardtasfollows:
It isto the actorand tono oneelse thatthe theatrebelongs.Thisdoes notmean,ofcourse.
the professional actor alone, but the actor as poet. as director. stage-manager,musician.
scene-designer, painter and certainly not least of all, the actor as spectator. for the
contribution of the spectators is almost as important iIS that of the cast.The audience
StJng~tI NalGk Vol.XU, No.3, 2007
28 s.JOliN PETERJOSEPli
mustlakeitspan inthe playif we areeverto see a true artofthe thearrec-tbe oldest, most
po.....erfut. and mostimmediate of the arts. combining the many in one.
[quoted in Hemendra Nath Das Gupta iii
AccordingtoProfessorH.H.Wilson.the primaryobjectofdramaticrepresentationsis"to
conveyinstructionsthroughthemeansofamusementand with this view.theymustaffect
themindsofthespectatorswiththestatements which theyexpress" (ii). From theartistic
pointofviewdrama andthestageindubitablypossessanethicaland ahistoricalvalueof
theirown.
Theartofdrama.consideredtobethefifth 'Veda'inIndia.isquiteancient.Undoubtedly
Indiapossessesarichandgloriousdramatictraditiongoing back more than two thousand
years.ThephenomenalgrowthanddevelopmentofdramainIndiahaditsorigininSanskrit
dramas.A.B.Keithisofthe viewthat"Indiantradition.preserved inthe 'Natyasastra',the
oldestofthetextsofthetheoryofthedrama,claimsforthedramadivineorigin,andaclose
connectionwiththesacredVedasthemselves" (12). A.L. Basham,the well-knownhisto
rian.observes:'TheoriginoftheIndian theatreisstillobscure.Itiscertain,however,that
even in the Vedic period dramatic performances of some kind were given, and passing
references inearlysources pointto theenactionatfestivals ofreligious legends.perhaps
only in dance and mime" (434-435).Indian drama is absolutely and precisely of Indian
origin.It evidently grewand developed quite independently of any occidentalinfluence.
Affirming the unique and the independent nature of Indian dramas and the outstanding
qualityof the Sanskritlanguage,Sir\VilliamJonesremarks that Sanskrit which is"more
perfect thanGreek, more copious than Latin and more exquisite than either" (quoted in
Hemcndra Nath Das Gupta 2) could easily produce dramas quite independently of the
GreeksortheYavanas.
Bharata,consideredtobethefatherofIndiandramaturgy,inscribes inNatyasastrathat
theprimary aimofadramaisthat itshouldgive knowledge to the ignorant.Moreover,it
should bothbea sourceofentertainment and enlightenment.The majorconstituentsof a
drama, according to Natyasastra, are plot. actors and aesthetic taste. Though renowned
dramatists like Kalidasa, Bhasa, Bhavabhuti, Shudreka. Ashvaghosha, Shri Harsha and
Vishakhadatta mostlyaffirmed the viewsexpressed intheancienttreatise on drama,they
startedwritingdramasinSanskritwithafewmodificationsregardingthe natureofdrama,as
an art. The dramas of these great and outstanding artistic personalities are remarkably
knownfortheirelegance,richandgracefulpoetry,properexecutionanddelicacyofsubtle
dramatic art. They not only depicted wonderfully the human sentiments but they also
re...ealed "3 deep acquaintance with the mechanism of the human heart as well as with
nature"[HemendraNathDasGupta54).
Though India is known for its heterogeneous culture, customs, languages, habit and
outlook,thetraditionaltheatreofIndiagotampleinspirationfromgreatepics:theRamayana
M~abharata
andthe andthe Puranicliterature.The playwrightsdrew storiesand charac
tersfortheirplaysfromthesesources.Thestoriesfoundintheseever-cherishedepicsand
BASAVARAJNAIKAR'S SANGYA-BALYA 29
puranas have beenorally passed on from generation to generation and also through the
artisticmediumofpuppetryandotherperformingartsandultimatelythroughwrittentexts.
These stories have not lost their enduring and everlasting charm and even now serve as
essentialandgenerative sourceforcreativeexpressioninliterature andart.
Dramaasan extensive and acomprehensiveart delineating the variegatedsagaofhu
manlifeinallitscomplexityincludestheperformingartsofdancing,singingandplayingon
musical instruments.Obviously,India isoneofthegreatstore-housesofperformingarts,
especiallythe traditional orclassical. folk and devotionaldramas.Thoughfolk theatre in
Indiafollowsthe widelyaccepteddramaturgical traditionsofNatyasastm, ithasemerged
asapowerfulmediumofsocialcommunicationintraditionalsocietiesorcommunities.Asif
isspirited,dynamic and ingenious infonn and rich invarietyandcolour.itexpressesthe
cultural heritage of a region very effectively. While stressing the fact that folk theatre
happens to bea very powerful medium of communication in folk cultures. J.C. Mathur
observes:
Folktheatre freely uses songs,dances and instrumental music.blendsdialogueand
acting.Thismultipleapproachresults inafonn thatisself-containedandacomplete
entertainment.Itismorethanentertainment,itisacompleteemotionalexperienceand
aimsatcreatinganenvironmentofreceptivityinwhichcommunicationofideasisan
effortless process.[3]
Asanindigenous[ann,thefolk theatremakes culturalexplorations,influencesthepsyche,
and strengthens the time-honoured value systems of the people. Dissanayake makes a
relevant Comment in thiscontext.According tohim,folk theatres"provideentertainment,
disseminateinformation,includesociallyacceptednormsandvaluesandperformageneral
socializingfunction"(12).Folktheatrerepresentsacombinationofsinging,dancing.prose
dialogue and music with elements ofsocialcriticism. What Eapen saysoffolk media in
generalcaneasily beappliedtofolk:theatre:
There isa commonality about them.Acceptability,culturalrelevance,entertainment
value.focalisedlanguage.legitimacy,flexibility,messagerepetitionability.instanttwo
waycommunication.etcareamongtheirvirtues.(18·191
Every State in India has its own distinctive forms of folk theatre. Folk performance
generallyfOnTISapart ofacommunityorsocialcelebration.Thevariouselementsfoundin
folkperformancesinvariably appealtoboth theeducatedandtheuneducated.therichand
thepoor.the youngand the old andchildren withtheir excitingthemes,melodiousmusic
andsongs.Unliketheclassical theatrewhich hasrigidrules.thefolktheatreallowssponta
neity.Amongseveraltypes offolk plays, religiousplays,socialplaysand historical plays
are significant ones. Religious plays depict stories and characters from the puranas and
epics.Social playsportraysocialevilswhichaffectpeopleintheirday-to-daylife.Historical
playsdeal withhistorical characters and themes.
30 S.JOHN PETERJOSEPH
The folk theatreofNorth Karnataka has a rich and glorious tradition. It is known by
differentnameslikeDoddata,HireAta[Grandplay)orBayalata(open-airplay),etc.Doddata
canbedifferentiatedfromSannata(smallplay)orDappinata(Dappu=littleflatdrum,ara=
play)."WhereasDoddataischaracterisedbygrandthemes,grandstageproperties.grand
costumes, grand songs anddances, Sannata is marked by simple themes. simple stage
costumes, simple songs and dances" (Naikar,The FolkTheatre of North Karnataka 14).
Dappinata is a play (Bayalata) which contains songs sung to the accompaniment of a
Dappuorsmalldrum.ThelabelSannataisusedtodifferentiateDappinarafromMudalapaya
(orDoddata).
ThetranslationofIndiandramaintoEnglish.unlikethetranslationofnovelsandpoems,
is quite scantyandinadequate.Some of the well-known dramatists who have translated
theirworksfromIndianlanguagesintoEnglishareRabindranathTagorc,BadalSircar;Mohan
c.c.
Rakesh,Girish Karnard, R.S.Badal, Mehta, Mahasweta Devi, Vijay Tendulkarand
GurujadaApparao.Many dramas written in Bengali, Hindi, Kannada, and Marathi have
been translated into English. These translations have undeniably enriched the corpus of
IndiandramainEnglish. BasavarajNaikarsSangya-Balya: Betrayal,anEnglishtransla
tionofRayappaParter'sfolkplayinKannada.isunquestionablyawelcomeadditiontothe
corpusofIndiandramainEnglishtranslation.
BasavarajNaikar'stranslationofRayappaPattar'sKannadafolkplayinto Englishmarks
thefameandreputationoftheSannatafrom asapartoftheglorioustradition of thefolk
theatreofNorth Kamataka.AccordingtoNaikar,"Sangya-Balya: Betrayalisadappinata,
inwhichsongs...playanimportantpart"tSangya-Batya. ix).Moreover.theelementof
musicwhichisanintegralpartofthefolktheatreisanimpressivecharacteristicofthisfolk
play.Dancealsohappens tobeanindispensablecomponentoftheplay.Theoraltextofthe
playissaidtohavebeencomposedbyRayappa Pattar, a nativeof Bailawada vilIage of
BasavanagoudataJuk ofBelgaumdistrict inNorthKarnataka. Whileacknowledgingthe
sourcesoftheplay, Naikarobserves:"The textofthe presentplayis takenfromtheoral
versionrecitedbySriBasavanagoudaPaul. GangappaMulimaniandFakirappaMadiwalar
ofMutanala village(inBelgaurndistrict)andpublished by Dr.MalikarjunaLarthe,retired
ProfessorofKannadaatGulbargaUniversity,Gulbarga,in 1991"(xii).
Sangya-Balya:Betrayal(200+)isafolkdramawhich"dealswiththeelementalpassions
ofloveandbetrayalastheyinterweavewiththedestiniesofordinarymortals'(RaviShankar
Rao.75).The actionof theplayissetin North Karnataka as it is very popular there.The
centralthematicconcernsoftheplayarelove,immoralsex.poverty,betrayalandrevenge.
Thoughtheplaywrighthastakenthethemeof theplayfrom areal eventwhichtookplace
d~~nghislifetime.hehasmadeitamemorableoneby providing"anartisticimageofhis
\'1510nabouthumanrelationshipandvalues"tSangya-Balya,x).Theauthor'sfineblending
offactandfictionisquiteremarkableintheplay.Sangya-Balya:Betrayal,isafolktragedy.
The tragedy inthe playoccursdueto the seriousviolationof long-cherished socialand
moralnorms relating tochastity, trustworthiness andloyalty. Like a typical Elizabethan
BASAVARAJ NAIKAR'S SANGYA·BALYA 31
tragedy,thisfolk dramadepictscommonhumanweaknessesandtheplayexcellentlyshows
how these vulnerable tendencies such as love, Just and revenge finally end in a cruel
tragedyand the lossof preciouslives.The protagonistofthisplay,Sangya, is murdered
ruthlessly and the lives of Ganga and Virabhadra are ruined irretrievably.The point of
ruinationstarts whenSangappa(fondlycalledSangya),ahandsomeandrichyoungman,is
enthralledbythe bewitching beautyofGanga.the youngwifeofarichlandlordandbusi
nessmannamedVirabhadra(fondlycalledIrannaorlrya).Knowingthatherhusbandison
alongbusinesstour.Sangyapersuadeshisfriend.Balya,apoormaninthesamevillage,"to
brainwashGangasothathecanhaveherinhisbed"(Sangva-Balya.53).Balya,thoughhe
happens to bea childhood friend ofSangya, expresses his unwillingness toactasago
between. Heevenadviseshis friend:
BaIya: Listentome,dearfriend,Sanganna,
Ravanalost hisheart [0 another's wife
And consequenlly losteverything,
LeSIyou shouldsufferlikehim.
Removethe ideafrom yourmind...(49]
Owing to hisutter poverty and keepinginmind thegenerousnatureofSangya,Balya
finally meetsGanga and revealstheintentionofhis friend toher.Butasachaste wifeofa
respectable man in society Ganga rejects the whole idea at once and sends him away.
Sangya's malicious plan ofbuying her with money andcostlygifts also miserablyfails.
Beingobsessed withthebewitchingattractionsofGanga,Sangyahimselfdirectlygoesand
meers her and expresses his uncontrollabledesire 10 possess her.Ganga censures Sangya
forhiseviland unethicaldesiresand tires10 reasonoutwithhim:
Ganga: Whydo youpesterme.Sangya?
How shallIbearthepubliccharge?
This affaircannotlastlong,
Youmay receiveadangerousjolt.
Don'tyourememberthestoryofKama?
How Kama lusted after the woman
And wasburntto ashesby LordSiva
Whowasangrybeyond measure?
Remembertheevilangrezigovernment,
I adviseyou tobeverycareful,
Lestyou should suffer likeamonkey
Whichhas eatenlimepastebymistake.
Youbettergobacktoyourwife.
And live withherhappily,
Iamsorry, man.Icannotobligeyou...[63}
YetSangya is highly adamantand withoutanyscruples.Once againGangatries to point
outtheevilnature ofhisintention.
32 s.JOliN PETERJOSEPH
Ganga: Thisisnotthe rightthing
For you todo,man
Be not subjecttomaya.
Lest you should ruin yourself
Don't you know the story
oftheten-headed Ravana?
HeabductedchasteSita,
Andsufferedalotoftrouble...
Don't you know thestory
ofDushyasanatheevilone,
And what happened 10 him finally?
Try to understandeverything. fool
Iamdoingmybesttoconvinceyou...[65J
UnabletoconvinceSangyaabouttheimpendingdangerawaitinghim,Gangafurthermoreadds:
Ganga: Why are you mad aftermy form?
Likeafirefly youenterthelamp.
Don'tyou know myterrifichusband.
Virabhadra,fearedevenbytigers?
He may hack you topieces,
Inbroaddaylight,fool,
Unnecessarily,nincompoop?[66]
Stillunconvinced, Sangya seeks advice from a koravanji and based on her advice he
approachesParammawhoiswillingtotakeupthemissionofarrangingaclandestinemeeting
betweenSangyaandGangaforapairofsarees.apairofblouses,apairofgoldenbangles
andapairofbuffaloes.WhenshetriestopersuadeGangatoyieldtoSangya,Gangatellsher:
Ganga- Ijoinmypalmsinreverence10 you
Paramma,speaknotofsuchathing,lest
Itshouldruin my happymarriage.
Don'tburdenmyheadwithill-fame.
.".Idon'tWantitatall (731
Like one of thethree witches who ensnare Macbeth into the eternal world of curse and
tribulation.ParammawithherartfulandcraftywordsultimatelypullsGangaintoanirredeem
abletrap.Gangaisunabletobefirminhermoralstandandeventuallyfallspreytothelustful
wishesofSangya.OnecanbesurethatGanga'sfallfromherlong-eherishedtraditionalmoral
code inlifewillcertainlyendinaterribletragedy.Thefollowing wordsofGangarevealher
innate weakness andturpitude:
Ganga; Ihaveinvitedyou,youngman,
BASAVARAJNAIKAR'SSANGYA·BALYA 33
Out ofmydeeploveforyou.
Letusput asidethefear ofIrya
Andunitelike milkandfruit.
Ihave full sympathyfor my husband.
Ifeartheruinationofmymarriage...[77].
Comeon,mydearyoungman
Let's ascendthebed
Andhaveagreatdealofpleasure.
Let'senjoyourselvesas sweetly
Asmilk fermented intocurd.and
As the sweetsiesta intheafternoon.
...0 dear,
Godhas broughtustogetherlike
Acombinationofpearlandamber...[78].
When the whole village begins to gossip aboutthe affair between Sangya andGanga.
Balyarealisestheinevitabledoomofboth.Hefearsthat"Sangyawillhavetofacetheblade
ofasickle"(79).TheillicitJoveaffairbetweenSangyaandGangacontinuesundisturbedtiJI
Virabhadra,Ganga'shusband,returnshomefromhisbusinesstripbeforehisscheduledtime.
Hebecomesfurious afterhearingabouttherelationshipbetweenhiswifeandSangya.He
rusheshomeandfindsthetwotogether.Ganga'stotaldegenerationandmoraldebasement
isrevealedwhenshetellsSangyathefollowingwordsevenafterknowing thatherhusband
hascomehomeand isknocking atthedoor:
Ganga. Ihavefallendeeplyinlovewithyou,
Ourunionhasbeensweetlikemilk andghee.
Fieonmybad luck,1don'tlike myhusband,
Ishallsundermyrelationwithhim
Tomorrowitself.Idon'Icareforwhat
Thepeopleofthevillagemightsay...[82].
Virabhadra charges his wife with adultery and accuses her of bringing disrepute and
dishonourtohisfamily.He,therefore,sendshiswifeawayfromhomeafterconfiscatingall
thegoldornamentsandothervaluablesfromher.Moreover,heconspirestomurderSangya
and inorder10 succeedin hiseffort he wants to weanaway BalyafromSangya.Hetells
Balya:
Virabhadra: YoumustgetSangyaforme,
Ishallgiveyou hundredsofrupees,
Sixteenoxenand asturdycart.
Ishallevengiveyoumyhouse,
Andlandedpropertyforthefavour..,[90]
BalyatellshimthatsinceheandSangyahappentobechildhoodfriendsandtrusteachother
34 S.JOHN PETERJOSEPH
deeply he cannotbetray his bosomfriend.But he finally agrees to betray him when Irya
threatenstocuthimintopieces.Fearingforlifeandbeingavaricious.Balyafinallymakesup
his mind tojoin hands with Virabhadra and hasten the tragic death ofSangya. He even
stoops tothelevelofalteringaletterfrom Gangainwhichsherevealstheconspiracy ofher
husband to killSangya and asks Sangya not to come to her place at any cost. But Balya
changesthecontentofthelettertosnithistreacherousplan.Sangyabelieves thecontentof
thelellerandgoestothevillageofGanga.GangatellsSangyaabouttheconspiracyhatched
byVirabhadra inconnivance with Balya. Sangyaunderstands the wicked nature of Balya
when heisleftaloneindarknessinastrangeplace after Balyatakesleave ofhimon some
pretext.The pathetic conditionandthementalagonyofSangyaisrevealedinthe following
speech:
Sangya: Itrusted Balyafartoo much,
Didyoubetrayme atlast.Balya?
Didyoutalk sweetly with me
Forthesakeofgold?
Andleavemeatthehandsofhooligans?
Didyou forsake mycompany
Forthesakeofapairofbuffaloes
Andkick meout?
Youtook thousandsofrupeesfrom me
Andsneakedawayfrom me,Balya.
Youleftmealoneinthejawsofdeath...[97)
Sangyaiscrueltymurdered with sickles and axesbyVirabhadra andhis brothers.They
murder him to regain the honour and prestige which they had enjoyed. in society.Then
Virabhadra beginstobeafraidoftheconsequencesof the murder.Hereveals hisfear tohis
brothers:
Virabhadra: Mydearyoungerbrothers,
Wecould notsimplyguess
Theconsequencesofthismurder.
Whydid wemurderSangya? ..
Wewerebolduntilkillinghim,
Butnowarescaredofthegovernment.
Mydear brothers,
Icannotforesee thefuture...(99J
Then(heysurrendertothemamledar(magistrate)andconfesstheircrime.Thestoryendsin
a tragedy:Sangya loses his life.The illicit affair ruins Ganga's married life.The lives of
Virabhadraandhisbrothersareruinedirrecoverably because of theirhasty, emotional and
unbalanceddecisiontodoawaywiththeparamourofGanga.ThoughParammaisaskedby
Virabeforeheleavesforhisbusinesstripto 'guard'Ganga,shehasbetrayedhim formoney
BASAVARAJNAIKAR'S SANGYA-BALYA 35
withoutanyqualms.Gangaalsobelievesthat herhusbandgivesmoreimportancetomoney
thantoher.She tellsParamma:
Ganga: ...The wealthofthe
familyiscalledgoddessLaxmi
Myhusband musthave asked
youtoguardthisgoddesssandnOIme...(33]
When Viratellshiswife that heisgoingonabusinesstrip toseekhisfortune.Gangatriesto
dissuade him by saying:
Ganga; Mydearhusband,please tellme how Ishouldlivealoneinthisthree
storeyedmansion.Beingayoungwife.IcannotJiveawayfromyou.
Pleasetakeme alongwith you ...(301
ButVira does notaccept herideaand proceedson hisbusiness tourafter telling her:
Virabhadra: Thepurchaseofpearlsandjewelswillyieldme aprofit. [31]
The ironyisthat thoughhe has purchasedpearls andjewelsforprofitinthefuture, he has
losthis wife.Thus the play deals with the themes ofillicit love, lust. avarice for money,
betrayal and revenge. It also depicts very clearly man's moral infirmity and decrepitude
excellently.
Obviously the folk audience enjoys the romance that takes place between Sangya and
Gangaandatthe sametime learnsalesson fromtheplay,namely,thatloosemoralsandthe
violation ofestablishedsocial andmoralcodeswouldleadtoone'sdownfallandruination.
Extramarital loveandsexare taboointraditionalsocie-ty.Themoralcodesofsocietycallfor
appropriatejusticeandpunishment.ThatisthereasonwhySangyahas10 meetwithacruel
murderand Gangalosesherhappy married life.Commentingonthe relevanceofthe play.
Ravi ShankarRao observes:'TheSannataisanoperaticperformancethat, unliketheother
typesofBayalata,brings folktheatretothesocialplene.Itisessentiallyasocialplaywhich
takesupfordramaticrepresentationissuesandconcernsthatarecentral tothesocietyofits
time" (77). The playwright points out that one should not give too much importance to
moneythroughthecharactersofVirabhadra,ParammaandBalya.Theybecomecorruptand
morallydebasedduetotheiravariceformoney.SangyaandGangabecomemorally corrupt
and weak because they give too much importance to bodily pleasure.Though both know
very wellthattheirillicitrelationship canonlybeatemporaryone, theystillcontinuetheir
immoral relationship without any fear ofsociety and its moral values. Though both are
married people and, in fact. Sangya has children. they do not care for the voice oftheir
consciences and become mindless ofthe future consequences. \Vhilecommenting on the
playNaikarobserves:
36 S.JOHN PETERJOSEPH
11 [the play]isalsoacommentonthe fallibilityofman ingeneral.Sangya'simproper
attractionforGanga.heryielding tosexual temptation.and Balya'streachery towards
Sangyacausedbyhispoverty andhelplessnessare severalinstancesofthefallibilityof
man.Thetragicend ofSangya isaffectedbytheinexorabilityof themorallawoflife.
Sangya,whotriestonegatethemoralprinciplesoflife(likethe sanctityofmatrimony),
getshimselfliquidatedbythemorallawoflifemanifestedinVirabhadra's vindictiveact.
[Sangya-Balya,xii]
Structurally.the play comprises five acts and like any Shakespeareandrama itcontains
dramaticelementslikeexposition,crisisand denouementorresolution.Theplotoftheplay
issimpleand straightforward. Every eventtakesthestory forward and events fromthefirst
sceneinActftothelastsceneinAclVarecoherentlyandlogicallylinkedwithoneanother.
AsaSannata,theplaygivesimportance10 musicand songs.Throughoutthe playsongsare
followedbyprosedialoguescontainingsummariesofthesongs.Inhisintroduction,Naikar,
thetranslator,pointsout:"Almosteverysong isfollowedbyaprosedialoguecontainingthe
summary ofthe song, which maylooklike unnecessary repetitiontoWestern readers.But
thiswouldbeveryeffectiveonthestageinthepresenceofaliveaudience"(xiii).Thethemes
dealtwithintheplayarepopularandappealingtoafolkaudience.Theplayispopularamong
both villageand urban audiencesbecauseofitsstyle,language,diction, images and meta
phors.AsinaGreek tragedy, theChorusplaysavital role.indicatingtheimpendingserious
actionintheplay.Theplaywrightdoesnotfailtouseironyandsatire.Thescenewhichtakes
place in the Marwari shop and the scene ofconversation between Pararnma and her old
husbandaredeliberatelyintroduced by the playwright to satisfy the aesthetic sense of the
groundlingsofthefolkaudience.Moreover.asinShakespeareantragedies,thesescenesact
ascomicinterludesfollowedbyseriousactionswhich ultimatelylead tothetragicendofthe
play.Whenonereads these scenesone isremindedofthe PortersceneinMacbeth andthe
gravediggersceneinHamieltosomeextent.Thesongsandthe music inthe playneverfail
10appealtothespectators.Theimages whichreflecttheday-to-dayactivitiesofruralpeople
have a freshness and originality.The play has severalmemorable passages which abound
withsplendidimages.DescribingthebeautyofGanga,Parammasays:
Seehow theyoungladywalks
Fastandstraightlikeamailcarriage.
Look atherbeautifulbody
Herlegsarelikeplantaintrunks.
She movesaboutwithsuchgrace
Likea stringedpuppet,likeapuppet.
Hernosestud sparkles like asplint
Struck onanothersplint
Andlike astar inthesky,
She iscladinashiningsilkensari.
Herneckisdeckedwithgoldengarlands.
