Table Of ContentSanti M. Mandal · Debarati Paul Editors
Bacterial Adaptation
to Co-resistance
Bacterial Adaptation to Co-resistance
Santi M. Mandal • Debarati Paul
Editors
Bacterial Adaptation
to Co-resistance
Editors
Santi M. Mandal Debarati Paul
Central Research Facility Amity Institute of Biotechnology
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur Amity University
Kharagpur, India Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
ISBN 978-981-13-8502-5 ISBN 978-981-13-8503-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8503-2
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019
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Contents
1 Plasmids: The Necessary Knowledge Wealth for Encountering
Antibiotic- Resistance Menace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Shriparna Mukherjee and Ranadhir Chakraborty
2 Disinfectants Amend the Expression of Membrane Bound
Efflux Transporters to Augment Antimicrobial Resistance . . . . . . . . 19
Govindan Rajamohan and Vijaya Bharathi Srinivasan
3 Knowledge Gaps and Research Needs in Bacterial
Co-Resistance in the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Paola Grenni and Gianluca Corno
4 Microbial Resistance to Antibiotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Martha Premlatha
5 Do Non-medical Uses of Antibiotics Develop
Cross-Resistance in Clinical Pathogens? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Lalitha Cheepurupalli, Sudarshan Singh Rathore,
Thiagarajan Raman, Niranjana Sri Sundaramoorthy,
and Jayapradha Ramakrishnan
6 Biofilms in Antimicrobial Activity and Drug Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Timsy Bhando, Vineet Dubey, and Ranjana Pathania
7 Antimicrobial Resistance in Microbes: Mode of Action
of TolC Like Protein and Their Mechanism of Regulating
Stress Resistance and Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Vijaya Bharathi Srinivasan and Govindan Rajamohan
8 Efflux Mediated Co-resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Amit Gaurav, Atin Sharma, and Ranjana Pathania
9 Biofilm and Antibiotic Resistance in Acinetobacter baumannii . . . . . 181
Rajagopalan Saranathan, Sudhakar Pagal, and K. Prashanth
10 Mechanism of Bacterial Co-resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Piyush Baindara
v
vi Contents
11 Antibiotics and Microbial Antibiotic Resistance in Soil . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Ali-Akbar Safari-Sinegani, Mehdi Rashtbari, Nayereh Younessi,
and Babak Mashkoori
12 Microbial Adaptation and Resistance to Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Debarati Paul and Santi M. Mandal
13 Antimicrobial Agents Used in Food Preservation or as Agricides
and Effect on Microbes in Developing Antimicrobial Resistance . . . . 251
Soma Mukherjee, Nitin Dhowlaghar, and Wes Schilling
14 Molecular Mechanisms of Action and Resistance
of Antimalarial Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Juveria Khan, Monika Kaushik, and Shailja Singh
15 Management and Control of Antimalarial Drug Resistance . . . . . . . 297
Amrita Chakrabarti, Vigyasa Singh, and Shailja Singh
About the Editors
Santi M. Mandalobtained his PhD in the field of Molecular Microbiology and
continuing research with major focus on Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. He visited
UTMB-USA and NUS-Singapore for his postdoctoral training. He worked as an
Assistant Professor of Microbiology at Vidyasagar University, India. He has pub-
lished more than 110 research papers in reputed journals and conferred upon several
prestigious awards for his research contribution. Currently, he is engaged at Central
Research Facility, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India.
Debarati Paul(PhD), currently Associate Professor in the Department of
Biotechnology, Amity University, has completed her PhD from the Institute of
Microbial Technology-CSIR (Chandigarh), and thereafter, she carried our research
work abroad in EAWAG (Switzerland) and Mississippi State University (USA) for
about 5 years, before joining Amity University, Uttar Pradesh, Noida, as Assistant
Professor. Her main areas of research are environmental biotechnology, encompass-
ing biodegradation, biofuels, genomics and proteomics, and also antimicrobial
resistance. She has published over 70 papers including research articles, reviews,
conference proceedings and posters, and book chapters. She has actively partici-
pated in national and international projects as Research Fellow and also as Principal
Investigator (PI) or as co-PI. She has received the prestigious Indo-US Science and
Technology Forum Award and Bharat Gaurav Award along with DST travel grants,
poster award, etc.
vii
Plasmids: The Necessary Knowledge 1
Wealth for Encountering Antibiotic-
Resistance Menace
Shriparna Mukherjee and Ranadhir Chakraborty
Abstract
Infections caused by multidrug resistant bacteria have been identified as an emer-
gent global public health problem as it significantly increases the rate of morbid-
ity and mortality and simultaneously health care costs. It has already been
identified that the foremost cause of mortality by the mid of twenty-first century
would be drug-resistant disease having direct implication in annual direct costs
amounting to 2–3% of the global output GDP. European Center for Disease
Prevention and Control (ECDC) and the Center for Disease control and
Prevention (CDC) have jointly made the definitions for MDR (multidrug resist-
ant), XDR (extensively or extremely drug resistant) and PDR (Pan drug resist-
ance). Only acquired antimicrobial resistance but not intrinsic resistance was
considered for defining MDR, XDR and PDR types. The consecutive develop-
ment of drug resistance in a population occurs stepwise and organisms with low-
level resistance may form the genetic platform for the development of higher
resistance levels. Molecular analyses have revealed that widespread multi resist-
ance has commonly been achieved by the acquisition of preexisting determinants
followed by amplification in response to selection (acquired resistance).
Plasmids, being an important carrier of mobile genetic elements bearing antibi-
otic resistance genes, play a fundamental role in the dissemination of antimicro-
bial resistance genes within the gene pool. Certain connections between
antibiotic-resistant plasmids and pathogenic bacterial clones are hugely exten-
sive. Plasmids, mainly the conjugative ones are undoubtedly the most significant
S. Mukherjee
Prasannadeb Women’s College, Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, India
R. Chakraborty (*)
OMICS Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, University of North Bengal,
Siliguri, West Bengal, India
e-mail: [email protected]
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 1
S. M. Mandal, D. Paul (eds.), Bacterial Adaptation to Co-resistance,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8503-2_1
2 S. Mukherjee and R. Chakraborty
drivers of antibiotic-resistance dissemination in the bacterial families such as
Enterobacteriaceae and Enterococcaceae, which comprise some of the most
important hospital-borne- pathogens. Role of plasmids in developing antibiotic
resistance and also endemic and epidemic behavior in certain important patho-
genic bacterial genera like Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter baumanii,
Staphylococcus aureus have been evidenced from several studies. Survival of
these bacterial pathogens in different challenging environments is mediated
mainly by plasmids. In the near future, scientists will be able to blend the tech-
nological and theoretical knowledge in clubbing genomics, transcriptomics, pro-
teomics and metabolomics to delineate the molecular basis of the fitness-cost and
compensation in plasmid–bacterium relationships
Keywords
Plasmids · MDR · XDR · PDR · Co-resistance · Cross-resistance
1.1 Introduction
The antibiotic era began with the discovery of the first three significant antibiotics-
tyrothricin, penicillin and actinomycin, in 1939 and 1940. Within the first 18 years
of the antibiotic era, about 30 antimicrobial agents had come into use (Swartz 2000).
Since their discovery, the use of manufactured antibiotics to control diseases has
revolutionized medicine. It has also greatly reduced the threat of many once fatal
illnesses. The use of these wonder drugs, combined with improvements in sanita-
tion, housing and nutrition and the advent of widespread immunization programme,
has led to a dramatic drop in deaths from diseases that were previously widespread,
untreatable and frequently fatal. By helping to bring many infectious diseases under
control, these drugs have also contributed to the major gains in life expectancy
experienced during the latter part of the last century. These gains were soon jeopar-
dized by the emergence and spread of antibiotic resistant microbes. The organiza-
tions such as US Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the European
Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) and World Health Organization
(WHO) have identified the infections caused by multidrug resistant (MDR) bacteria
as an emergent global disease and a major public health problem as it significantly
increases the rate of morbidity and mortality and simultaneously health care costs.
The successive development of antibiotic resistant bacterial populations follows
the Darwinian principle of ‘Survival of the fittest’ (White and McDermott 2001).
Many genes determining resistance had been present in nature and predate the clini-
cal use of antimicrobial drugs. Antibiotic resistant bacteria, estimated at over
2000 year old have been isolated from deep within glaciers in Canada’s high arctic
regions (Dancer et al. 1997). Resistant microorganisms have also been found among
historic bacterial cultures collected before the beginning of antimicrobial era (Smith
1 Plasmids: The Necessary Knowledge Wealth for Encountering… 3
1967). Over millions of years, bacteria have evolved a number of strategies to coex-
ist peacefully, including the capacity to produce antibiotics to fight off competitors.
The last five decades have seen an outstanding ability of bacterial populations to
develop and share resistance to every antibiotics that has been developed, often by
quite amazing mechanisms and much more readily than was formerly predicted.
Dramatic increase in both the proportion and absolute number of multidrug resistant
bacterial pathogens are posing worldwide threat (Roca et al. 2015). The foremost
cause of mortality by the mid of twenty-first century would be drug-resistant disease
having direct implication in annual direct costs amounting to 2–3% of the global
output GDP.
1.2 Who Will Be Regarded as Multidrug Resistant Ones?
1.2.1 Definitions for MDR, XDR and PDR
Standard terminology for defining different types of drug resistant microbes is of
vital importance. This will help to get consistent reporting of comparable data that
will track trends of antimicrobial resistance both locally and globally. The database
would therefore enable in promoting the sensible use of antimicrobials and adoption
of other public health measures by the authorities concerned with public health
(Carmeli et al. 2010; Jones and Masterton 2001). A joint initiative was taken by the
European Center for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) and the Center for
Disease control and Prevention (CDC) to define bacterial pathogens exhibiting
resistance toward a significant number of antimicrobial agents with suitable stan-
dardized international terminology like MDR (multidrug resistant), XDR (exten-
sively or extremely drug resistant) and PDR (Pan drug resistance) (Magiorakos
et al. 2012). Final proposed definitions were presented to the ECDC advisory forum
on 30th September, 2010. Only acquired antimicrobial resistance but not intrinsic
resistance was considered for defining MDR, XDR and PDR types. A bacterial iso-
late is considered to be resistant to an ‘antimicrobial class’ when it exerts/ exhibits
non susceptibility to one or more antimicrobial agents within that class (Hidron
et al. 2008; Kallen et al. 2010).
Bacterial isolate resisting at least one agent in three or more antimicrobial cate-
gories is considered as MDR. XDR exhibits non-susceptibility to at least one agent
in all but two or fewer antimicrobial categories (i.e. bacterial isolates remain suscep-
tible to only one or two categories). PDR is resistant against all agents in every
antimicrobial category (i.e. no agents tested as susceptible for that organism). Thus,
a bacterial isolate which was previously characterized as XDR, will also be charac-
terized as MDR. Similarly, the prerequisite of a bacterial isolate to be branded as
PDR, it has to be primarily be a XDR. As per set theory, a subset of MDR is XDR
and subset of XDR is PDR. The serious implication of bacteria being PDR is that no
approved antibiotic agents are left to be used against them.
