Table Of ContentAviAtion visuAl PercePtion
Aviation visual Perception
research, Misperception and Mishaps
rAndy Gibb
United States Air Force Academy, USA
rob GrAy
Arizona State University, USA
&
lAuren schArff
United States Air Force Academy, USA
© randy Gibb, rob Gray and lauren scharff 2010
All rights reserved. no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher.
randy Gibb, rob Gray and lauren scharff have asserted their right under the copyright,
Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the authors of this work.
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Gibb, randy.
Aviation visual perception : research, misperception and
mishaps. -- (Ashgate studies in human factors for flight
operations)
1. Airplanes--Piloting--human factors. 2. visual
perception. 3. Airplanes--Piloting--safety measures.
i. title ii. series iii. Gray, rob. iv. scharff, lauren.
629.1'3252-dc22
ISBN: 978-0-7546-7497-9 (hbk)
978-0-7546-9891-3 (ebk)
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Gibb, randy.
Aviation visual perception : research, misperception and mishaps / by randy Gibb, rob
Gray and lauren scharff.
p. cm. -- (Ashgate studies in human factors for flight operations)
includes index.
ISBN 978-0-7546-7497-9 (hardback) -- ISBN 978-0-7546-9891-3 (ebook)
1. flight--Physiological aspects. 2. visual perception. 3. Aeronautics--human factors. i.
Gray, rob. ii. scharff, lauren. iii. title.
rc1075.G53 2010
616.9'80213--dc22
2009038272
contents
List of Figures vii
List of Tables ix
Foreword xi
1 Vision in Aviation 1
the challenge 2
Aviation Mishap involving visual Misperceptions 4
visual Perception Allows for heroism 13
our Approach 17
references 18
2 Sensation and Perception Foundations 21
bottom-up versus top-down Processes and theories of vision 22
Attention 26
the Physiology of vision 29
specialized visual Processing (color, depth, Motion) 37
visual cue integration and Applications in Aviation 45
the vestibular system and body Perception 53
spatial disorientation: vision and vestibular contributions 54
conclusion 55
references 56
3 The Role of Basic Visual Functions in Aviation 61
visual Acuity 61
contrast sensitivity 63
optical correction: lenses and surgery 67
visual fields and useful field of view 69
Glare susceptibility 72
color vision 77
night vision 79
stereoscopic depth Perception 80
Motion Perception 81
vision and Ageing 82
summary 83
references 83
4 Pilot Perspective of Cues Used for Visual Flying 89
environmental Perception 90
vi Aviation Visual Perception
Approach to landing 91
low level flying 110
visual integration and cognitive challenges 114
references 115
5 Research on Cues Used for Visual Flying 119
visual-motor control in Approach and landing 119
visual-motor control in low level flight 130
Mid-air collision Avoidance 140
conclusion 144
references 144
6 Spatial Disorientation—Cues, Illusions and Misperceptions 149
spatial orientation and Disorientation Defined 150
General visual sources of Aviation Misperception 155
Aviation-related visual illusions 156
vestibular illusions 182
non-perceptual causes of spatial disorientation 188
Preventing illusions 189
conclusion 195
references 195
7 Aviation Mishaps: Misperception of Visual Cues 201
research on spatial disorientation 205
Past Mishaps Attributed to visual spatial disorientation 219
recent Mishaps and incidents Attributed to visual spatial
disorientation 233
General Aviation 257
conclusions: Aviation Mishaps 262
references 263
8 Aviation’s Future: Technological Advancements to Visual
Perception 271
head-up displays 271
flight Path displays 276
night vision devices 280
unmanned Aerial systems 285
synthetic vision systems 288
laser retinal displays 292
conclusion 293
references 293
Index 297
list of figures
figure 1.1 environment, pilot, and aircraft interaction 3
figure 1.2 Mishap glide-path 5
Figure 1.3 Black hole illusions 6
figure 1.4 Precision approach path indicator lights 6
figure 1.5 hudson river ditching 14
figure 2.1 crater shading illusions 24
figure 2.2 Major components and pathways of the visual system 26
figure 2.3 A schematic cross-section of the human eye 29
figure 2.4 Photoreceptor absorption curves for the three cone types 38
figure 2.5 foreshortening examples of a runway 44
figure 2.6 visual angle geometry from an elevated perspective 47
figure 2.7 turning tables illusion 49
figure 2.8 transverse and medial visual angle schematics 50
figure 2.9 vestibular system components 53
figure 3.1 sinewave gratings 64
figure 3.2 contrast sensitivity function 65
Figure 3.3 Useful field of view 71
figure 3.4 Mean left-turn safety margin study data 75
figure 3.5 relationships between visual acuity and glare
susceptibility 76
figure 4.1 Altitude and distance of a 3-degree glide-path 91
figure 4.2 visual overhead and visual straight-in approach
depictions 93
figure 4.3 three photographs of an approach to landing 94
figure 4.4 landing at Albuquerque international Airport 96
figure 4.5 night time-lapsed photograph at funchal, Portugal in the
Azores 99
figure 4.6 landing at Matre Airport, sao Paulo, brazil 100
figure 4.7 final approach to landing at Great barrier reef Airport,
hamilton island, Australia 102
Figure 4.8 Short final for landing at Sao Jorge, Portugal in the
Azores 103
figure 4.9 landing at tallinn Airport, estonia 103
Figure 4.10 Short final for landing at McMurdo Station, Antarctica 105
figure 4.11 Aerial refueling photograph 109
figure 5.1 splay angle 120
figure 5.2 Altitude cues during landing 123
figure 5.3 retinal image expansion to estimate time to contact 128
viii Aviation Visual Perception
figure 5.4 Pilot subjective ratings of visual cues used during landing
flare 129
figure 5.5 visual correlates of crossing distance 132
figure 5.6 visual correlates of time to passage 133
figure 5.7 errors in estimating time to contact 136
figure 5.8 visual occlusion and altitude maintenance 138
figure 5.9 relative bearing of climbing/descending aircraft 141
figure 5.10 Midair collision data for closure rate 142
Figure 6.1 Black Hole illusion depiction 161
figure 6.2 visual null theory of runway perception 162
figure 6.3 dual-processing size/shape constancy 168
figure 6.4 size constancy over terrain 171
figure 6.5 terrain sloping illusions 172
figure 6.6 Perception of various sized runways 175
figure 6.7 runway sloping illusions 176
figure 7.1 fatal accidents by mishap type 202
figure 7.2 fatalities by mishap type 202
figure 7.3 Accidents by primary cause 203
Figure 7.4 Accidents by phase of flight 204
Figure 7.5 LaGuardia International Airport, New York 222
figure 7.6 Map of canadian Arctic islands, ellesmere island 232
Figure 7.7 Wreckage of C-130 near Alert, Ellesmere Island 232
figure 7.8 crash site at nimitz hill, Guam 239
Figure 7.9 Profile view of Flight 801, Guam 240
Figure 7.10 Route of flight 2006 helicopter mishap 249
Figure 7.11 Route of flight 260
Figure 7.12 Depiction of final moments of spatial disorientation 261
figure 8.1 head-up display 272
figure 8.2 head-up display during a landing 273
figure 8.3 flight path display depiction 277
figure 8.4 flight path display photograph 278
figure 8.5 visual approach into Portland international Airport 279
figure 8.6 components of night vision goggles 281
figure 8.7 interaction between pilot, unmanned aircraft, and
environment 286
figure 8.8 inputs for a synthetic visual system 289
list of tables
table 2.1 Altitudes along with their corresponding reductions in visual
capability 35
Table 2.2 Prevalence rates of different types of color deficiency for
males and females 41
table 2.3 visual angle of runway width and length at different altitudes
and distances along a 3-degree glide-path for landing 48
table 5.1 Probability optimal observer or real pilot can see and avoid
a random converging aircraft 143
table 6.1 Misperception of glide-path model data examples 167
table 6.2 seven reasons for misperception of altitude and distance 181
table 6.3 visual illusions and their characteristics 183
table 6.4 factors that cause visual illusions and pilot actions 184
table 7.1 human factors contributions to f-16 mishaps 209
table 7.2 spatial disorientation frequency data 211
table 7.3 Most frequently experienced illusions 213
table 7.4 summarized spatial disorientation by aircraft type 214
table 7.5 General aviation visual misperception data 258
Table 8.1 Comparison of night vision goggles and forward looking
infrared devices 284
table 8.2 night vision device spatial disorientation data 285
