Automotive Emissions Regulations and Exhaust Aftertreatment Systems

464 Pages·2020·20.999 MB·English

by  John Kasab, Andrea Strzelec

Automotive
Emissions
Regulations
and Exhaust
Aftertreatment
Systems
An SAE Core Title
Kasab | Strzelec
Automotive Emissions
Regulations and Exhaust
Aftertreatment Systems

Automotive Emissions
Regulations and Exhaust
Aftertreatment Systems
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Library of Congress Catalog Number 2020936340
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contents
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xxi
CHAPTER 1
Introduction 1
1.1 Engine-Operation Fundamentals 2
1.1.1 Engine Components 2
1.1.2 The Four-Stroke Cycle 5
1.1.3 The Two-Stroke Cycle 7
1.1.4 Performance Parameters 8
1.1.5 Air–Fuel and Fuel–Air Ratios 11
1.1.6 Combustion and Reaction Stoichiometry 11
1.2 Types of Automotive Engines 13
1.2.1 Spark Ignition Engines 14
1.2.2 Compression Ignition Diesel Engines 15
1.2.3 Comparison of SI and CI Engine Operation 16
1.3 Criteria Pollutants 17
1.3.1 Sulfur Oxides 17
1.3.2 Particulate Matter 18
1.3.3 Carbon Monoxide 18
1.3.4 Ozone 18
1.3.5 Nitrogen Oxides 18
1.3.6 Lead 19
1.4 Greenhouse Gases 19
References 19
CHAPTER 2
Emissions Formation 23
2.1 Emissions Formation in Internal Combustion Engines 24
2.2 CI Combustion Emissions 24
2.3 SI Combustion Emissions 26
©2020 SAE International v
vi Contents
2.4 Nitrogen Oxides 27
2.4.1 CI Engines 28
2.4.2 SI Engines 30
2.4.3 Exhaust Gas Recirculation 30
2.5 Carbon Monoxide 32
2.6 Hydrocarbons 33
2.6.1 Incomplete Combustion—Quenching and Crevices 34
2.6.2 Hydrocarbon Emissions from CI Engines 35
2.6.3 Hydrocarbon Emissions from SI Engines 37
2.7 Particulate Matter 42
2.7.1 Particulate Formation and Characterization 42
2.7.2 Sulfur and Sulfur Oxides 49
2.7.3 Ash 49
2.8 Aldehydes and Ketones 50
2.8.1 CI Engines 51
2.8.2 SI Engines 51
2.9 Carbon Dioxide 51
References 52
CHAPTER 3
Emissions Control Regulations 61
3.1 Ambient Air Quality 63
3.2 Light-Duty Criteria Pollutants 67
3.2.1 United States (Federal) 67
3.2.2 California 69
3.2.3 European Union 70
3.2.4 Japan 70
3.2.5 People’s Republic of China 71
3.2.6 India 72
3.2.7 Brazil 73
3.2.8 Republic of Korea 75
3.2.9 Other Countries 76
3.3 Heavy-Duty Criteria Pollutants 76
3.3.1 United States (Federal) 76
3.3.1.1 On-Road Applications 76
3.3.1.2 Non-Road Applications 78
Contents vii
3.3.2 California 79
3.3.3 European Union 79
3.3.3.1 On-Road Applications 79
3.3.3.2 Non-Road Applications 80
3.3.4 Japan 81
3.3.4.1 On-Road Applications 81
3.3.4.2 Non-Road Applications 82
3.3.5 People’s Republic of China 82
3.3.5.1 On-road Applications 82
3.3.5.2 Non-Road Applications 83
3.3.6 India 83
3.3.6.1 On-Road Applications 84
3.3.6.2 Non-Road Applications 84
3.3.7 Other Countries or Regions 84
3.4 Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gases 85
3.4.1 United States (Federal) 85
3.4.1.1 Fuel Economy Standards 85
3.4.1.2 Greenhouse Gas Standards 87
3.4.1.3 Monroney Fuel Economy Label 89
3.4.2 California 90
3.4.3 European Union 91
3.4.4 Japan 92
3.4.5 People’s Republic of China 92
3.4.6 India 95
3.4.7 Other Countries 95
3.5 Heavy-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gases 95
3.5.1 United States (Federal) 95
3.5.1.1 Phase 1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Standard 96
3.5.1.2 Phase 2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Standard 97
3.5.2 California 99
3.5.3 European Union 100
3.5.4 Japan 100
3.5.5 People’s Republic of China 101
3.5.6 India 102
3.5.7 Other Countries 103
3.6 Unregulated Emissions 103
References 104
viii Contents
CHAPTER 4
Emissions Testing Protocols 113
4.1 LDV Test Cycles 114
4.1.1 US Federal Test Protocol FTP-75 114
4.1.2 US Highway Fuel Economy Test 117
4.1.3 US US06 (Supplemental FTP) 118
4.1.4 US SC03 (Supplemental FTP) 119
4.1.5 US FTP-75 Cold Cycle 120
4.1.6 California (US) LA-92 120
4.1.7 EU NEDC 120
4.1.8 Japan JC08 122
4.1.9 World-Harmonized Light-Duty Transient Cycle 122
4.1.10 Real Driving Emissions 124
4.1.10.1 RDE in the EU 126
4.1.10.2 RDE in Japan 128
4.2 Heavy-Duty Engine Test Cycles 128
4.2.1 Example HDEs 130
4.2.2 World-Harmonized Heavy-Duty Transient Cycle 131
4.2.3 World-Harmonized Heavy-Duty Steady-State Cycle 132
4.2.4 US Heavy-Duty Federal Transient Protocol 133
4.2.5 US Supplemental Emissions Test and RMC 139
4.2.6 US NTE Requirement 142
4.2.7 Non-Road Transient Cycle 144
4.2.8 Non-Road Steady-State Cycles 146
4.2.9 European Transient Cycle 148
4.2.10 California Low-Load Cycle 150
4.3 HDV Test Cycles 150
4.3.1 US Phase 1 GHG Standards 151
4.3.2 US Phase 2 GHG Standards 152
4.3.3 EU HDV Cycles 154
4.3.4 Japan JE05 and Intercity Cycles 154
4.3.5 China Stage 3 Fuel Consumption 155
References 155
Contents ix
CHAPTER 5
Emissions Measurements 161
5.1 Gas Analysis Methods and Techniques 163
5.1.1 Nondispersive Infrared (NDIR) Spectrometry 164
5.1.2 Chemiluminescence Detector (CLD) 165
5.1.3 Flame Ionization Detector (FID) 166
5.1.4 Magnetic Methods 166
5.1.5 Fourier-Transform-IR (FTIR) Spectrometry 167
5.2 Exhaust Sampling Systems 167
5.2.1 Dilution Tunnels 169
5.2.2 Constant Volume Sampling 170
5.3 Stationary Analysis Strategies for Exhaust Pollutant
Species 171
5.3.1 Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide
Measurements 171
5.3.2 Hydrocarbons Measurement 172
5.3.3 Oxygen Measurement 172
5.3.4 Nitrogen Oxides Measurement 172
5.3.5 Particulate Matter Measurement 173
5.3.5.1 Gravimetric Methods 174
5.3.5.2 Chemical Composition 177
5.3.5.3 Particle Number Measurements 177
5.3.5.4 Particle Size Measurements 178
5.3.5.5 Mitigating Condensed Liquids and Volatiles 182
5.3.5.6 Smoke Number and Opacity Measurements 183
5.3.5.7 Photoacoustic Measurements 183
5.3.6 Aldehydes and Ketones Measurement 184
5.4 Portable Emissions Measurement Systems (PEMS) 185
5.4.1 Exhaust Flow Meter 186
5.4.2 Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide Measurement 187
5.4.3 Hydrocarbons Measurement 187
5.4.4 Nitrogen Oxides Measurement 187
5.4.5 Particulate Measurement 187
5.4.6 Position Measurement and Power Requirements 187
References 188