Table Of ContentContents
Preface . . ...... ............ ........ . . . ... . . ... ....... . . . .........x xix
Chapter 1 Introduction
What Is Complete Automation Design? .... ........ .... . ..... ...... .. ........1
Motivation for Updating This Manual .......................................2
Technology Now a Strategy, Not a Limitation ....... ... ............ ... ........3
What This Manual Does and Does Not Include .. .... ... ... .................. . .4
Intended Audience ....... ................................................ .4
Manual of Practice Chapter Contents .... .. .... .. ... .........................4
References ............... ..... .................. .... ... ................. ..6
Chapter 2 The Business Case for Automation
The Benefits of Automation ........................ ... ....... ... ..... ... .... .8
Meet Regulatory Requirements ... ... ...... ... .... ..... .. ......... .. ......8
Improve Process Performance and Reliability ....... .... ........... .. .......8
Record Data and Create Reports ... ......... .. ... .. ... ....... .............9
Save Chemicals and Energy .. .. ................. .... .....................9
Save Labor .. ................ .................... .. ................ ... .9
Reduce Risks .... ................ ... ...................................1 0
Ensure a Good Night's Sleep ....... ... .... ........ .... ... ....... ........1 0
The Cost of Automation ........... ... ....... .. .. ... ... .. ...................1 0
Return on Investment-Why We Do Projects .......... .. ... .. ................1 0
Payback Period ...... ...... .... .. ......... ..... .... ... .......... .. .....1 1
Cost-Benefit Ratio .................................. ...................1 1
Rate of Return ........................................... .... ... .......1 3
Ten Keys to a Successful Project .... .. .......... ..... .. ............... .... ...1 3
System Advocate ............ .... .... .. .. .. .............. ... ..... .. ... .1 3
Management Support ............... ....... .. .. .. ... ..... . ......... ... .1 4
Owner Involvement ................. ....... ..................... .. .. ..1 5
vii
viii Contents
15
Operator Involvement ...... ....... .. • • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
16
Stakeholder Involvement ... .. ... ....... ... .. ..... • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
. Pl . .... .. . . .. ..1 6
M am tenance an ......... . ... .... . • • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
16
Full System Testing ..... .... . .... .... . • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
17
Contingency Plans ........ . .. ......... •. • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
17
Training ..... ... ........... .. .. • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
Goals .......... ......... ........... .......... • • • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .l8
References ... ..... ... .. .... ........... . ......... ... . • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .l8
Chapter 3 What Is a Complete Automation Design?
·gn Process • • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · • .20
The Desl
•••••••••••••••• • ••• ••••• t •••• • • •••••
,iect Structure ... ....... . ......... ............. . • • • • · • • · · · · · · · · · · · .20
Pro) '
·gn Phase ... .. .... ....... ......... .... . ........... •. • • • • • ..2 3
The Predesl
The Detailed Design Outline Phase .. .. ... . .. .... .. . .. • . . • • • • • • • · • • • • • • • .24
The Final Design Phase ........... ... ... .. . ..... .. ..... • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .24
Design Documents .. .. ........... .... . . ... ....... • . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .25
Process and Instrumentation Diagrams ... . .. .. ....... .. ... • • • .. • • • • • • . ..2 5
Elementary Wiring Diagrams ...................... .. ... ......... . ..... .2 5
Process-Control Narratives .... . .. ..... . ..... .. .......... ...... ........ .25
Tag Numbers .. ...... ... ... ... ... .. ..... ... .......... • . ... ... . .. .. .. 28
Monitored Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Valve-Position Switches and Indicators ..... .. ... .. .... ... ....... .. ... ... 29
Alarms ...... ... .. ...... ... ... .. ....... .. •• ...... • ............ .... . 29
Reset Function .... .... ... ...... ....... .... .. .. ..... ... .. ..... .... .. 30
Remote Indicators ....... ..... ....... .... ........ ......... . .. ....... . 31
Local Pushbutton Stations ....... ...... ...................... . ... . .. ... 31
Uninterruptible Power Supplies ..... ...... . .. ............ . ............. 31
Vendor-Supplied Packaged-Equipment Panels and Controls .................. 31
Process-Control-System Configuration and Communication
Schema tics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Control-Panel Designs ...... .. .. ... .. ... ... ... ... .. . . .. .. .. ... .. . ..... .3 2
Instrumentation- and Panel-Location Drawings ............... . .. ... .. .. . .3 2
Instrument Loop Diagrams ....... ... ... ..... ... .. ..... . . ....... .. .....3 2
Instrumentation Installation Details ..... .. .... ... .. ... ..... ... . .........3 3
Instrument and Input/Output Lists ... .... ..... .... .... .... . .... . .. .. . . .3 3
Specifications and Bid Documents ..... ... ....... .. .. ...... . ........... .3 3
Sources of Technical Design Information .. . . ....... . . .. .. .. ...... . .... ... ...3 3
Technical Societies . . ... .. .. .. .......... . ... ..... . . .... .. .. .. . ........ .3 3
Vendors ..... ............ ... . .... ... .. .. ... . . .. ..... ............. .. . .3 4
Selecting Vendors and Technologies ......... .................... .... .. .. 35
Incorporating Selected Technologies into Design ......... .. ................ 35
Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ♦ • • ••
Contents
lX
Web Sites ..... . ....... . ..... .. ........ ........... .. ... .. ... • . • • ......3 6
Books and Periodicals .................. .............. . ..... • • • • • • • ....3 6
Previous Design Experience ......... .. .. . ..... ....... .. .. ....... . ......3 6
Post-Design Phase ............. . .. .. ......... ..... .............. ........ .36
Design Services during Construction .. .. ... ...... ................... .. ..3 6
Reviewing Shop Drawings ............................................ 36
Processing Change Orders ............................................. 37
Responding to Requests for Information .. .. ........................... . . 37
Meeting with Contractors and Suppliers ... .. ............................ 37
Making Regular Site Visits ............. .. .. ........................... 37
Witnessing Factory Acceptance Tests ............................... .37
System Performance ... ......... ............ .. ......... ......... .3 8
Hardware Testing ... ..... ...... .. ..... ................. .. ........3 8
Software Testing .................. . ....... . ... ............ ... ....3 8
Simulation Software .... .. .... .. ............. ....... . .... . ... .....3 9
Operator Interface Terminals .. ........ .............................4 0
Construction Management ... ....................... . . . . .... .... . .. .. .4 1
Field Tests .... ..... .. .. ............ .. ...... ......... . .............. 41
Loop Testing ... ....... .................. ..... ...................4 1
Integrated System Testing ...... , , •. , ... , , . , .•... , ... .... ... , ... ...4 1
Final Acceptance ........ .. ...... ... . .. .... .... .... .. ... .. .. .. .... ... 42
References ................. .... .... ... .... .. .. ........ . ........ .. . .. ....4 2
Suggested Readings .. . .......... ........................... ..... .. ..... ..4 4
Chapter 4 Process and Instrumentation Diagrams
lrltroduction . . . .. . .......... ... ... ......... . . . . . . ..... . .... . .. ...........4 8
How To Create Process and lrlstrumentation Diagrams . ... .......... ......... .4 9
Process-Flow Diagrams ............. .... ........ .. ..... . . . . . . . ... . .... .50
Symbols . . ... ... ................ . .. ... ..... .... ....... ... .. . . ....... .5 1
Computer-Aided Design Software . . ..... ... ... .................. ...... .53
Interactions with Other Design Documents ... . . ... ... ............. . ......5 4
Instrument List ........................... . ... ........... .. ......... 54
Input/Output List ................................. .. ......... ....... 54
Panel List ... . ... . ......... .. .. . ...... . .. . ...... . ............ ....... 55
Cable and Conduit List ....... ... . ...... .. ..... . ...... ................ 55
Process-Control Narratives ... .. ........ .. ..... .. ............. ......... 55
Panel and Field-Instrument Specifications ................ .. . ...... ... .... 55
Electrical Schematics . .... .. .... ........... ......... . ... . ............. 56
Instrument Loop Diagrams .. .... ............................. ......... 56
Equipment-Location Drawings .... ... . ............... ....... . ....... ... 56
Control-System Architecture Diagram .. ........... .. . ..... ... .. ......... 56
Process and Instrumentation Diagrams as Communication Tools . . . . . . ....... . .57
Contents
X
·acts ............... ....5 7
COI1tI
,. • e ♦ o • 0 0 I O ♦ 0 0 I O ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ I ♦ • • o o • • • • • 0 0 0 o ♦ ♦ 0 0 0 • ♦ 0
User and Owner Feedback ................ ..... ........... • • • • · · · · • • • • .57
Operator Tra.m m· g . ......... ............... ....... . .......... • • • • • ....5 8
. '
Operator-Interface Graphics ......... ....................... • • • • • • • • • . • .58
As-Built Documentation ........... ........ .. ................ . • • • • • ... .59
New Developments ......................................... ..... ........5 9
Intelligent Process and Instrumentation Diagrams ............ • • • • • • • • • • • .59
Streamlined Diagram Development .... ................. .. ......... .. .. . 60
Object-Based Schematics ..........................................6 0
Modular System ..... ......... .... ..... .... ....... ...............6 1
Integration with External Data Sources ..... ..........................6 1
Interoperability ... ...... ....................... ... .......... .....6 1
Symbol-Management Tools ............................ .............6 1
Review and Navigation Tools .................... ..... . .. . ...... ....6 1
Component-Management Tools ..... .... ........................ ....6 1
Automatically Generated Lists ........................................... 62
Design History for As-Built Drawings ................................... 62
Construction, Startup, Operation, Maintenance, and Asset Management Uses ... 62
Process and Instrumentation Diagrams for HVAC Systems .. . . .. ...........6 2
References ..... ... ... .. ..... .. ................ .... .. .... ................6 3
Suggested Reading .. . . ............. ............. ... .. ........ ..... ...... .6 4
Chapter 5 General Characteristics
Background ... . .......... ........... ....... .............. . . . ............6 6
Instrument Classifications ...... . ..... ............. .. .. .. .......... .......6 7
Signal Types ............ . ... ... ....... ...... ................... . .....6 7
Sampling Method ... ..... ... .... ..... ............ .......... ...........6 8
Point Sensors ...... .. .... .. ... ..... ....................... .......... 68
Nonpoint Sensors .... ........... .................................... 68
Measurement Method ................ .. ... ...... ......... .. ..........6 9
Instrument Characteristics ....... .. ....... ....... . ... .. .......... . ........6 9
Properties . . ... . ... ...... .... .. . ........... ...... ... ......... ....... .6 9
Range ..................... ...... ..... ........... .... .... ......... 69
Span ... .. ..... ...... ....... ........... ............. ........ ...... 70
Rangeability ........ .... ............... ............................. 70
Overrange .................. ......................... . .......... ... 70
Zero Suppression, Elevation, and Offset . .. ............. . ...... .. ......... 70
Damping .......................................................... 70
Static Characteristics ...... . ... .. .............. ... .. ... ................7 1
Zero error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 72
Span error .. .................. ........ . ... . .. ....... ............... 72
Hysteresis or hysteretic error . ...... ............... . .................... 73
Contents
xi
Dead band ................... ... ................................... 73
Linearity ..................... ..................................... 74
Drift ....... . ........ ............................................. 74
Repeatability ...................... . ........... ...... .... ........... 75
Sensitivity ..... ........................................... ......... 75
Dynamic Characteristics .. .... ....... ...... .... ........................7 7
Value Conversions . ................ .......... ... . .. .. .... ..... .......7 7
Linear Value Conversion ............................. ................. 78
Nonlinear Value Conversion .......... ....... .. ... .................. ... 79
Nonlinear, Non-zero-based Conversion ..... .......... .. ... ............ .. 80
Environmental Concerns and Design Considerations ...... .... ................8 2
Temperature ..... .......... .. .... ...... . . ... .... ...... .......... .. ...8 2
Moisture ............. .... .. ........... ............ ..... ..... ... . ....8 3
Short-circuits .... ....... .... .. ............... .... ........... . ...... 83
Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 83
Swelling .............. ... ......... ... ....... .. .................... 83
Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ....8 4
Responses to Environmental Concerns ... .......................... .. ...8 4
Enclosures and Electronic Standards .......... .. ............ ..... . ...... 84
Enclosed Spaces .................. ..................... ....... ....... 86
Temperature Controls ... .. .. ................ . ......... ............... 87
Fire Ants .... . ...... .... . ...... ... .. ...... ....... . ................. 87
Testing and Quality Assurance .. ...... .......... .. ............. ....... .....8 7
Need for Instrumentation Testing . . . . .... .. . ...... .. ... .. ..............8 7
Instrumentation Test Reports . . ........ . ... ..... ...... .. .... .. ..........8 8
Standards . ..... .... ... . ........... .................. .. .. .... ....... .9 1
Sources and Types ..................... ..... .. .. .......... ......... .. 92
Calibration Standards ................. .......... ..... ...... . .. . ..... . 93
Primary Standards .. ... .. ....... .......... .............. .........9 3
Traceable Standards .. ...... ...... . ........ .. ...... . .. ..... .. .....9 3
Portable Standards .... . ... ........................... .. ..........9 3
Internal Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. ....... . ...... . . ...9 3
Terminal Strip . ... .. .. ........... . . .. .. ... .. .. . .................. ....9 4
Power Supply ..... . . ... .. .......... .......... .. ....... ......... .....9 4
Printed Circuit Cards .... ... ... .. .... .. ......... .. .. ...................9 4
Connectors .... .......... ..... ... .. . ... ... .. .......... .. ... ..........9 4
Calibration Points . .............. .... .. ..... ... .. .. .... . ..... ........ .9 4
Display . ... . . ... . .. ................ ....... ... . .......... . ...........9 4
Electrical Concerns ......... ........... ......... ........ ...............9 4
Voltage Spikes ... ...................... .. ..... ........ ... ... ....... . 94
Transient-Voltage Surge Suppressors .... ....... ... ...................... 95
Grounding .. . .. . .. ............. ........ .. ........ .... ... ...... ..... 96
..
on tents
11
Shi1:ldi11g .... .............................. .. ..... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 96
'mJrt. Process Instrumentation ........ ..... .. .......... .. • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · • .97
Do urncntation .......... ... ............................ • • • • • · · · · · · · · · • • .98
Uggcsted ·Read·u ·,gs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... • • • • • • • • • · · · • • • .98
Chapter 6 Sensors
Sensor Characteristics ..... ...... .. ....... ... ............ .... ... • • • • • • • • . .1 05
Wastewater Characteristics ..... ......... ............... .. ....... ... • ... ..1 05
Plastic Products ........................... ........... .... .. ..... ....1 06
Hair and Fibers ....... ... ......................... ...................1 06
Solids ......... .... .. ............... ........................ . .......1 06
Grease ....... ... ... ... .... . ........................................1 06
Color ...... .... .......... ... .. . ... .. .. .. ... ... ... ..... ........ ... .. .1 07
Sulfides and Hydrogen Sulfide .......... .. ... ........... ..... .........1 07
Diurnal Changes ............. ....................... .. ....... ... ....1 07
Flow Meters . ........... .. ... ... . ... .. .. .. ..............................1 07
Magnetic .... .. ... ... .. .. ... ... .... .............. ........ ......... . .1 08
Operating Principles ...... ..... .. .......... .. ............. ... .. .... . 108
Construction Materials ... .. ...... ................................... 110
Accuracy and Precision ..... .. ... .... .... ...... .. .. .. .... ... ... .... , 110
Installation ......... .. ....... ... .... ... ................... . . .. ... 112
Maintenance Requirements .. ............... .. ....................... . 114
Ultrasonic ... ..... .... . ..................... ............. . ..... . ..1 15
Operating Principles ........... .. .... .. ......... .. ................. 116
Construction Materials ......... .. ....... ........ ... ........... .. .... 116
Accuracy and Precision . .. ................................. . .. .... .. 116
Installation .. .... .. .. .. ...... ... ...................... ........ ... .. 119
Maintenance Requirements ....... .... .................. . . ... . .. . .. . .. 121
Weirs and Flumes ... . .. ....... ......... . .. ........ . ... . .. . .. .. .. .. . .1 21
Operating Principles .... .. . ... . ... .. ................... .. .. ......... 121
Construction Materials ............. . ................................ 127
Accuracy and Precision . . .. ... . ..... . .. .. ..................... ...... 127
Installation . . ........ . ..... . ..... . .... ............ ..... . .... .. .. .. . 127
Maintenance Requirements .. . ... .. ................ . ............. .... 128
Differential-Pressure ... . .. . ....... .................... . .. . ..... . .. . . .129
Operating Principles . ....................... ............ .. ..... ..... 129
Construction Materials ...... ................... .. . . ........ .... ... .. 130
Accuracy and Precision ... ... ...... ... .... .......... . ........... . .... 130
Installation .... . ........... • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ................ ... . .. . . 131
Maintenance Requirements ............................. .. ..... . . ... . . 131
Mechanical ..... .......... • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ..... ............. ....1 32
Rotary-Elenient ... ... .. ... . • • • • • • • • • • • · • • • • • • • • .. ... .. ... .......... 132
Contents xiii
Operating Principles ....... .... .............. ............... ... ..1 32
Co11struction Materials .............................. , .. .. • • • • • • ..1 34
Accuracy and Precision ...... ........ . ..................... . .. ...1 34
Installation ............. ........... .. ... ... ........... .. ... ... .1 34
Maintenance Requirements ............... ... . .... .... .. .. .. ......1 35
Variable-Area ........... . .................... .................... .. 136
Operating Principles .... .. ... ... ........... . .. ........ . .... ... ..1 36
Construction Materials .. .. ........... . ................ ..........1 36
Accuracy and Precision ......... ........... ........ ....... .......1 37
Installation ........ ........ ........... .. ......... ..............1 37
Maintenance Requirements .......................... .............1 37
Mass ..................... .. ... .................... ................1 37
Coriolis ... ............. .... . .............. ... .......... ........... 138
Operating Principles .... .. ... ...... ............... .. ............ .1 38
Construction Materials ............. .. ........ .. ......... .. .. .. .. .1 39
Accuracy and Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ....1 39
Installation ............... ... .... .. ........ .. ... ...............1 40
Maintenance Requirements .......................................1 40
Thermal-Dispersion .. ............ ................................ . .. 140
Operating Principles ...... ........ ..... ..... .. ........ ....... ...1 40
Construction Materials ... .... ... ......... ..... ... ...... ..... ... ..1 40
Accuracy and Precision ....................... ................. ..1 41
Installation ........ .............. ..... ............. ........ ... .1 41
Maintenance Requirements ........... ................. .. .........1 41
Level-Measurement Devices .................... . ....... .... .. ... .. ..... ..1 41
Continuous ...... .. ................... .. .... .... ....................1 41
Bubbler ........ ................ .... ......... .. ...... ..... .. ....... 142
Operating Principles .. ...... ...... ... ... ... .. ....................1 43
Construction Materials ............ .... ... .................... ... .1 44
Accuracy and Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....1 44
Installation .................................. ..................1 45
Maintenance Requirements ................... ............... .. ...1 46
Capacitance and Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 146
Operating Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ...... .........1 46
Construction Materials .. .... .. ....... .. ...... ... ....... .. ... ... ..1 49
Accuracy and Precision . . . . . . . . .. ..... .. ....... ... .......... .....1 49
Installation .................... .. ...... . .... ... ........... .... .1 49
Maintenance Requirements .. ...... .. .... ...... ...................1 50
Differential-Pressure .... ..... . ....... ... .... .. .. ....... . .. ...... .... 150
Operating Principles ... ........ .......... .......................1 50
Construction Materials ... ... ....... ..... .. .. .......... ...... .. ...1 53
Accuracy and Precision .... ........... .. ................... .. ....1 53
xiv Contents
l11stnllation ................................. • • · • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .153
Maintenance Requirements .. ... ............... • • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · .155
·c and Ultrason1·c ... .......... ................. . • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · 156
SOJll ' '
Operating Principles ... .. ........................ • • · · · · · · · · · · · · .156
Construction Materials ... .. .. ......... ....... . ..... • • • · · · · · · · · · · .158
Accuracy and Precision ......... ...... ..... .... .... • • • • • · · · · · · · · .158
Installation ................... .. ............... .... • • • • • • • · · • • .158
Maintenance Requirements ... .................... .. .. . • . • • • • · · • • .159
M·1·c·rowave (Radar) ................................ . . . . . . . • . • • • • • • • • 160
'
Operating Principles ..... . ... .............................. .....1 60
Constructl·on Materuz· ls .. ....... ... .. .. .. .. ...... ..... ......... ....1 61
Accuracy and Precision ................... .. ......... ...... . • • • • .161
Installation ............. ... ............... .. ..... . ....... . .....1 61
Maintenance Requirements ... ......... ...........................1 62
Point .... ................. ................ ....... ............ . ..... . 164
Operating Principles ..... ...... ..................... . ............. .. 164
Construction Materials ......... .. .................. ................. 165
Installation ...... .................................................. 165
Maintenance Requirements .. ........................................ 165
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166
Operating Principles ............................. ............. .. .....1 66
Construction Materials ..................... . ...... . ... ...............1 67
Accuracy and Precision ....... .... ............. .. .................. . ..1 67
Installation ...... ........... .............. ....... .................. . . 167
Maintenance Requirements ...... .. ................... .. ....... .......1 68
Temperature ....... .. ....... .. .. . ........ .. ........... .................1 68
Thermocouple ............................. .. .. ................... . . . 168
Resistance . ................................... ....... . ... ...........1 71
Thermistor .................. ............. ..........................1 72
Thermal Bulb ........... ......... ................ .. ............... .1 72
Accuracy and Precision .... .. ...................... . .. .. .............1 72
Installation ................... ............ .................. ........1 73
On-line Analyzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 74
Dissolved Oxygen ............... ....................................1 75
Typical Membrane Sensor Design ........................... ........ . 175
Conventional Galvanic Measuring Cell ............................1 76
Clark Polarographic Measuring Cell ........ . ............ ...........1 77
Ross Polarographic Measuring Cell ...................... .........1 79
Zullig Sensor .. .. ............................................ ..... 180
Luminescent Dissolved Oxygen Sensor .......... ...................... 180
Accuracy and Precision ...... .. ............... ... . ....... .... . ..... . 181
Installation . ............... • • • • • • • • • • . • .... ... ....... ............. 181
Contents
xv
Maintenance Requirements ............... • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 181
C1l-l1lo r1·ne Res1·dual • • • • • • • • • • ..... " • • • . . • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .182
DPD Colorimetric Method Analyzer ..... ......... • • • • • • · · · · • • · • • • • • • • 183
Amperometric Bare-Electrode Analyzer .. ............. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • . 186
Amperometric Membrane-Covered-Electrode Analyzer .. . ...... • • .......... 186
Oxidation-Reduction Potential Probes ....... . .......... . • • . • • • • • • • • • ... 187
Accuracy and Precision . ... .......................................... 188
Installation ................ .. ..... ...... . ...... . ................... 188
Maintenance Requirements ..................................... ...... 189
Polymer ..... .......... .. .... ................. ........ ..............1 89
Operating Principles ........ ... . ..... ............. . ............. . .. 190
Construction Materials ......... ..... . .. . ..... . .. .................... 191
Installation ........ .. .............................................. 192
Maintenance Requirements ..................... ..................... 192
Nitrogen ............ .... ... . . . .... . . ..... ... .... . ...................1 92
Ammonia and Ammonium ............ .. ....... ......... . . .... . ...... 192
Operating Principles ................ ............. ...... . .. . ..... .1 93
Construction Materials ....... ... .. , . ..... . .... .... ..............1 94
Accuracy and Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ......1 94
Installation ..................... ............... ................1 94
Maintenance Requirements .. ... ........................... .......1 94
Nitrate and Nitrite . ..... ... ................... .. ........... . ........ 195
Operating Principles ........................... .. ... .... .........1 95
Construction Materials .. .... .............. ....... ................1 96
Accuracy and Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...1 96
Installation ........................................ . ...........1 96
Maintenance Requirements .... . .. . .... .............. .. .. .. ... ....1 96
pH ···· .. .. .. .... ................... .. .. ......... .......... . .. . . ....1 96
Operating Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........1 97
Typical pH Sensor ....... .. ... .. ............... ................. .1 97
Ion-Sensitive Field Effect Transistor .. ... ............................1 99
Accuracy and Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 202
Installation ................. ..... ..... . .............. .. .. ... . ...... 202
Phosphorus and Orthophosphate ... . . .. ... . ..... ......... .... .... . ....2 04
Orthophosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 204
Operating Principles ....... .. ................. ...................2 04
Construction Materials ...... .... . .......... ............... . ......2 04
Accuracy and Precision 204
Installation . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·2 04
Tc ~intenance Require~e·n·t~ · : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :204
ota :.~:i~;u;,ri~~i~le~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 205
· · · · · · · · · · ... ... ..... ... ....................2 05
xvi Contents
Construction Materials ..................... .. • • · · · · · · · · · · · · • • • ..2 05
Accuracy and Precision .............. .. ... ..... • • • · · · · · · · · · · • • • ..2 05
Installation .. .................. ......... ... ... • • • • • • · · · · • • • • • ..2 05
Maintenance Requirements ... . .... .. ... ... .. .. .. • • • • • • · • · • • • • • . ..2 05
On-Line Solids Measurement ................ .. .. ...... ••••••••••••• ...2 05
Operating Principles ........................... .......... • • • • • • . • ... 207
Near-Infrared Analyzers ................ . ... .. ..... .............. .2 07
Microwave Analyzers ... .. ...................................... .2 07
Construction Materials ........ .. ............. ... .. .................. 210
Accuracy and Precision ............ .. ... .......................... .. 210
Installation ................. ...... .... .... .. ....................... 210
Maintenance Requirements .......................................... . 210
Interface/Sludge Blanket Level (ISBL) Analyzers ....... .... . ..... ......2 11
Operating Principles .. ............... ............ ... .... .... .. ... ... 212
Ultrasonic ISBL Analyzers ....... .. ............... ................2 12
Optical ISBL Analyzers ...... ......... .. ....... .. .. ..............2 13
Applications ... ... .... .. . ... ... .. .................. ..... ........... 213
Variable Blanket Height ............... . ............. .............2 13
Variable Blanket Height and Suspended Solids Profile .... ...... ........2 13
Blanket Height Alarm ... .• , , .. , , . ..... .... . ... .. ... .. . ... ..... . .. 214
Construction Materials .... .. ......... ........ ........... .. .. ... ... . 215
Accuracy and Precision ........... ............... .... ................ 216
Installation . .... ...................... . .. . .. . ......... ... ... ... .... 216
In-Line with Skimmers or Flights .......... ... .....................2 16
Off-Line with Skimmers or Flights ............................ . ... .2 17
Fixed Submerged Location .... ..... ......... . .. ..... . .... .........2 17
Maintenance Requirements ..... ......................... ..... . .. . ... 217
Vibration ................... . .. .................... . ........... . ....2 18
Operating Principles ........ .. ..................... .. .. ... ......... 218
Velocity Transducers . .. .. . .. .... ... ........ .... .. ...... . ....... ..2 18
Acceleration Transducers ............ .. ................ ...........2 19
Displacement Transducers ....... ... ................ ..............2 20
Construction Materials .... .............. .... . ........ . .............. 220
Accuracy and Precision ............... ... . ....................... . ... 221
Installation .......................... ... . ............... ........... 222
Flush-Mount .............. .. ... . ... ............................2 22
Nonflush-Mount .................. . .. ... .. ....... ........ ... ....2 23
Maintenance Requirements .... ....... .... .. ........... .... ..... ...... 224
References ...... ..... .... • • • . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ....... . .. . ....... .... ..2 24
Chapter 7 Final Control Elements
Control Valves . .... . . ......... • • • • • • · · · · • · · · · · · • • • • ..... ..... .......... .227
