Attraction, Affiliation and Disenchantment in a New Religious Movement

290 Pages·2008·1.61 MB·English

Attraction, Affiliation and
Disenchantment in a New Religious
Movement

A Study of Individuals’ Experiences in a
Siddha Yoga Practice

By

John Paul Healy

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of
the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy

School of Social Sciences and International Studies
University of New South Wales, 2008
Declarations

ORIGINALITY STATEMENT
‘I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my
knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another
person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for
the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational
institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any
contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at
UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. I also declare
that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work,
except to the extent that assistance from others in the project's design and
conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is
acknowledged.’
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or part of this thesis or dissertation.
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i
Abstract
This thesis explores thirty-two individuals’ experiences of involvement in Siddha Yoga.
Such groups have often been labelled as cults and accused of ‘brainwashing’ their
followers. The conceptualisation of affiliation as brainwashing has been influential
within the helping professions, including psychology, counselling and social work.
However, this conceptualisation is not supported by empirical research on cults, or what
have become known as New Religious Movements (NRMs). The research problem
which this thesis addresses therefore is: ‘If a brainwashing model of affiliation does not
give an adequate explanation for cult/NRM involvement how else might it be
understood?’

A primary objective of this study was to inform the helping professions, in particular
social work. A secondary objective was to add to knowledge about Siddha Yoga
Practice in Australia, which no other study had addressed, and thereby to add to the
growing understanding of NRMs in Australia. The study applied a qualitative research
framework, informed by grounded theory, ethnography and phenomenology and used a
purposive sampling technique. Materials were collected by semi-structured in-depth
interviews, participant observations and field notes, and analysed with the assistance of
NVivo data analysis computer software.

This study found that the conceptualisation of affiliation as brainwashing fails to
account for the variety of individuals’ experiences of involvement in Siddha Yoga.
Moreover, the findings highlight that involvement in regard to attraction, affiliation and
disenchantment is not helpfully understood by adopting a ‘brainwashing’ model and
could be better understood through the lens of the sociology of religion, including
studies of the experiences of those in mainstream religions.

One implication of the findings for social work and other helping professions is that
existing approaches to interpersonal helping could be used with individuals who seek
assistance after leaving a NRM. For social work, this thesis also adds to the growing
knowledge of the diverse religious orientations in the wider community. Such
knowledge can enhance social work education, practice and theory in relation to social
work’s diverse client population.
ii
Dedication
This is dedicated to my 10 brothers and sisters and our parents who brought us out from
Ireland to Australia.

iii
Acknowledgements
This thesis would not have been possible without the cooperation of the participants
who graciously allowed me into their lives to tell me their stories. To them I am deeply
grateful and honoured to have spent time in their company.

Thank you also to Swami Nityananda of Shanti Mandir, and Swami Shankarananda of
Shiva Yoga who kindly allowed access to their ashrams and centres. Also thank you to
Siddha Shiva Yoga for allowing me to visit their centre in Ghent, Belgium.

There are many I would like to acknowledge from the Social Work program at the
University of New South Wales for their encouragement and sustained support. Dr
Mark Hughes, my primary supervisor, from the beginning of my PhD candidature to the
end, dedicated much of his time to my study and also in supporting my professional
development. It was Mark who kept me on track and who helped me to focus on goals
and deadlines. With Mark’s encouragement and tough love the thesis evolved naturally.
I would also like to acknowledge my various co-supervisors I had during my
candidature. Dr Elizabeth Fernandez, who helped me begin my study and made sure
that I got out in the field early in the project. Also thank you to Professor Carmen
Moran who for a time advised me on aspects of my study and also encouraged my early
attempts at the findings chapters. And many thanks to my final co-supervisor Dr Lesley
Hughes who brought fresh eyes and good humour near the end of my candidature, her
attention to detail and interest in the topic was much appreciated. I also have to thank
Karen Heycox for commenting on my very first journal article. Thank you to Professor
Richard Hugman for ‘Hugman’s Handy Hints on developing a research proposal’.
Although he gave these out when I was doing honours many years ago, they were still
helpful in completing this present study. Many thanks to A/Professor Eileen Baldry who
always made me feel like I was part of the school. Thank you also to A/Professor Helen
Meekosha for her postgraduate support. A special thank you to Chris Mangos for her
encouraging words which were always helpful. Thank you to Dr Shannon McDermott
and Dr Leanne Dowse with whom I shared some of their joys and struggles as they
successfully completed their own PhDs. Lastly, thanks to Dr Michael Wearing who
warned me off doing a PhD, but then when I failed to take his advice still supported and
encouraged me at every stage. Michael has been a great friend and an interesting role
model.

In the larger School of Social Sciences and International Studies I would like to
acknowledge Dr Alan Morris in regard to his collegial generosity and for his
involvement in the postgraduate student seminars.

Most importantly I owe a special thank you to my sister-in-law at the school, Carol
Healy who was my inspiration for going to University and in taking it as far as I have.
Carol and her partner, my brother Martin, have both supported me all the way and if not
for their encouragement I would not have entered University, nor discovered the joys of
learning.

Also many thanks to Eileen Barker and her staff for providing me office space and
resources at Inform, the London School of Economics, over a two week period for
research purposes.
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Thank you to my friend Des Devlin who kindly read a draft of the thesis and offered
many suggestions on style and structure. And thanks to Kim Wilson, for our shared love
and experience of India and the nights at Bentley’s Hotel Mumbai.

Many of my friends have given encouragement and support for my study, thank you to
Kim Mclean and his partner Elanora, Bob and Mitzy, Deb Shaw, Camilla Hodgkins,
Libby Wertheim and Annie Wertheim. Also my Sunday cycling buddies, Dr Michaelis
Michael, Karen Bland, Dr Bea, Dr Amitavo, Matt and Steph. Thank you to Susie
Eisenhuth for her always generous words of encouragement. Thank you also to Francis
Duffy with whom I started my social work degree and for the many late night
discussions on the topics of both our postgraduate studies.

Finally thanks to Ram Dass and Piper, our fur kids, and Robyn who loves them….

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Table of Contents
Declarations........................................................................................................................i
Abstract..............................................................................................................................ii
Dedication.........................................................................................................................iii
Acknowledgements...........................................................................................................iv
Glossary.............................................................................................................................ix
Chapter 1......................................................................................................................1
Introduction.......................................................................................................................1
The Research Problem..................................................................................................................5
Personal Motivations....................................................................................................................6
Definition of Siddha Yoga Practice...........................................................................................7
Definition of New Religious Movements....................................................................................8
Definition of Religion...............................................................................................................9
Outline of the Thesis....................................................................................................................12
Conclusion..................................................................................................................................16
Chapter 2....................................................................................................................17
The Study of Religious Activity........................................................................................17
Aspects of the Study of Religion..................................................................................................17
Conversion..................................................................................................................................22
The Study of New Religious Movements.....................................................................................27
New Religious Movements in Australia.......................................................................................30
Conclusion..................................................................................................................................34
Chapter 3....................................................................................................................36
Brainwashing and the Helping Professions......................................................................36
Affiliation and Brainwashing.......................................................................................................36
Social Work and Spirituality........................................................................................................47
Conclusion..................................................................................................................................51
Chapter 4....................................................................................................................54
Siddha Yoga Practice........................................................................................................54
Swami Muktananda’s Siddha Yoga..............................................................................................54
Schisms of Swami Muktananda’s Siddha Yoga............................................................................59
Swami Nityananda’s Shanti Mandir and Swami Shankarananda’s Shiva Yoga..............................60
Visiting the Source: Authenticity and Lineage..............................................................................62
Studies on Siddha Yoga Practice..................................................................................................64
Conclusion..................................................................................................................................66
Chapter 5....................................................................................................................69
The Research Process.......................................................................................................69
Significance.................................................................................................................................70
The Study’s Aims and Objectives................................................................................................71
Research Questions.................................................................................................................71
Qualitative Methods.....................................................................................................................72
A Grounded Approach............................................................................................................74
Ethnographic Approach..........................................................................................................75
Phenomenological Approach...................................................................................................77
The Research Methods.....................................................................................................79
The Scope of the Study.............................................................................................................79
Gaining Access.......................................................................................................................79
Who was Included in the Study................................................................................................81
The Participants......................................................................................................................85
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Materials Collected.................................................................................................................86
The Interviews.........................................................................................................................87
Participant Observations and Field Notes...............................................................................92
The Groups’ Own Material.....................................................................................................93
Personal Challenges of Participant Observations..........................................................................94
Getting ‘Sucked in’..................................................................................................................94
Entering the Field...................................................................................................................95
Qualitative Analysis of Collected Materials..................................................................................98
Computer Assisted Qualitative Analysis.................................................................................100
Rigour in Qualitative Research..............................................................................................101
Ethical Consideration of the Study.............................................................................................102
Ethical Challenges................................................................................................................103
Offering Something in Return................................................................................................106
Conclusion................................................................................................................................106
Chapter 6..................................................................................................................108
Discovering a Siddha Yoga Practice...............................................................................108
Seeking or Not Seeking.............................................................................................................108
Seekers.................................................................................................................................109
Accidental-Seekers................................................................................................................111
Hearing About Siddha Yoga......................................................................................................113
The Initial Attraction of Siddha Yoga.........................................................................................116
Life Crises and Turning Points...................................................................................................119
Participants’ Prior Spiritual Experiences....................................................................................120
Signs.....................................................................................................................................124
Discussion.................................................................................................................................125
Conclusion................................................................................................................................131
Chapter 7..................................................................................................................133
Experiencing Siddha Yoga Life......................................................................................133
Section 1: The Developing Movement.......................................................................................133
Going to India in the Early 1970s..........................................................................................134
Bringing India Home.............................................................................................................136
Household Centres................................................................................................................137
Discussion.................................................................................................................................140
Section 2: The Established Movement........................................................................................143
Seva/Volunteer Work at the Ashram.......................................................................................144
Ashram Life..........................................................................................................................145
Moving into the Ashram: ‘Ashramites’...................................................................................147
Spiritual Names: What’s in a Name?.....................................................................................150
Non-involved Parents............................................................................................................151
Discussion.................................................................................................................................153
Conclusion................................................................................................................................156
Chapter 8..................................................................................................................157
Spiritual Life ‘Sadhana’.................................................................................................157
Meeting the Guru.......................................................................................................................158
Understanding the Guru.............................................................................................................163
Discussion.................................................................................................................................166
Shaktipat...................................................................................................................................170
Spiritual Experiences.................................................................................................................175
Discussion.................................................................................................................................178
Conclusion................................................................................................................................183
Chapter 9..................................................................................................................185
Movement away from Siddha Yoga (SYDA).................................................................185
Significant Events......................................................................................................................186
Muktananda’s Death and the Adoption of Nityananda and Gurumayi as Co-leaders....................186
Nityananda’s Alleged Forced Removal and Subsequent Harassment by Siddha Yoga Devotees..188
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Muktananda’s Alleged Sexual Relations with Female Devotees..................................................190
Changing Organisation..............................................................................................................195
Competing Interests...................................................................................................................195
The Internet...............................................................................................................................196
Discussion.................................................................................................................................199
Conclusion................................................................................................................................202
Chapter 10................................................................................................................203
Life After Siddha Yoga...................................................................................................203
Refocusing Their Lives..............................................................................................................204
New Spiritual Affiliation After Siddha Yoga..............................................................................207
What They Have Kept...............................................................................................................210
Sustaining Friendship Networks.................................................................................................214
Discussion.................................................................................................................................215
Conclusion................................................................................................................................219
Chapter 11................................................................................................................220
The Varieties of Religious Experience............................................................................220
Revisiting the Research Process.................................................................................................221
Summary of Findings.................................................................................................................222
Attraction..............................................................................................................................222
Affiliation..............................................................................................................................225
Disenchantment....................................................................................................................229
Some Implications of the Study..................................................................................................232
Suggested Directions for Research.............................................................................................235
My Reflections on the Study......................................................................................................236
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................237
Bibliography....................................................................................................................243
Appendices......................................................................................................................267
Appendix 1................................................................................................................................267
Appendix 2................................................................................................................................268
Appendix 3................................................................................................................................269
Appendix 4................................................................................................................................270
Appendix 5................................................................................................................................273
Appendix 6................................................................................................................................274
Appendix 7................................................................................................................................275
Appendix 8................................................................................................................................277
Appendix 9................................................................................................................................278
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Glossary
The terms and definitions related to Siddha Yoga Practice presented in this glossary
reflect the participants’ usage and knowledge of these terms rather than the various and
complex interpretations that are possible. The interpretations are therefore informed by
their experience in Siddha Yoga Dham Associates (SYDA) and the usage of the terms
in that organisation.

Amrit: A café style area in Siddha Yoga ashrams and centres where snacks and drinks
are prepared and served.

Amma: A respectful and affectionate term when addressing a female guru meaning
mother.

Ashram: A traditional Hindu residential hermitage for spiritual aspirants, often headed
by a resident religious leader of a spiritual order or intentional spiritual community.

Baba: A respectful and affectionate term when addressing a guru meaning father.

Darshan: Being in the presence of the guru or a sacred image or place.

Disciple: The follower of a guru, usually called a devotee, or in the case of Siddha Yoga
a ‘Siddha Yogi’.

Guru: Guru in this study relates to a Hindu-based Indian tradition of spiritual teacher
who has apparently achieved a god-like enlightened state.

Guru-disciple tradition: A longstanding tradition in India where a spiritual aspirant
enters into a relationship with usually one guru. The guru then guides the aspirant to
spiritual enlightenment or self realisation.

Guru Gita: The Guru Gita provides a template for the relationship between the guru
and the devotee and is chanted in Siddha Yoga ashrams every morning.

Guruji: A respectful term when addressing a guru.

Intensive: The intensive is usually a two-day event of chanting, meditation and listening
to presentations, where devotee experience Shaktipat initiation.

Kashmir Shaivism: Kashmir Shaivism is a form of non-dualistic Hindu philosophy
originating in the late 18th century; although as an oral tradition is much older (Chatterji,
2004; Singh, 1990). Kashmir Shaivism teaches the recognition of the true self or
supreme self as Shiva or god (Shankarananda, 2003, p.53). With Vedanta, Kashmir
Shaivism provides the theological context for Siddha Yoga Practice.

Kriya: a non-voluntary physical, mental, or emotional movement participants
experience any time after Shaktipat. Kriyas are considered to purify the seeker’s body.
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