Atomic Layer Deposition: Principles, Characteristics, and Nanotechnology Applications, Second Edition

264 Pages·2013·3.341 MB·English

by  Tommi Kaariainen, David Cameron, Marja?Leena Kaariainen, Arthur Sherman(auth.)

Atomic Layer Deposition
Scrivener Publishing
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Beverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener ([email protected])
Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Atomic Layer
Deposition
Principles, Characteristics, and
Nanotechnology Applications
Tommi Kääriäinen, David Cameron,
Marja-Leena Kääriäinen, and
Arthur Sherman
2nd Edition
Copyright © 2013 by Scrivener Publishing LLC. All rights reserved.
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Cover design by Russell Richardson
Library of Congr ess Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
ISBN 978-1-118-06277-7
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Acknowledgements ix
Foreword xi
Preface xiii
1 Fundamentals of Atomic Layer Deposition 1
1.1 Chemical Vapour Deposition 1
1.1.1 Thermal CVD 2
1.1.2 Plasma Enhanced CVD (PECVD) 5
1.2 Vapour Adsorption 6
1.2.1 Physisorption 7
1.2.2 Chemisorption 9
1.3 Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) 10
1.3.1 Thermal ALD Processes 11
1.3.2 Radical Enhanced ALD (REALD) 16
1.3.3 Spatial ALD (SALD) 22
References 29
2 Elemental Semiconductor Epitaxial Films 33
2.1 Epitaxial Silicon 33
2.1.1 Dichlorosilane Processes 34
2.1.2 Other Processes 42
2.1.3 Epitaxial Germanium 46
References 49
3 III-V Semiconductor Films 51
3.1 Gallium Arsenide 51
3.1.1 Organometallic Precursors 52
3.1.2 Halogen Precursors 62
v
vi Contents
3.2 Other III-V Semiconductor Films 63
3.3 Applications 64
3.3.1 Photonic Structures 64
3.3.2 Transistors 64
References 65
4 Oxide fi lms 67
4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Aluminum Oxide 68
4.2.1 Processes and Properties of Aluminum Oxide 70
4.3 Titanium Dioxide 81
4.3.1 Processes and Properties of TiO 82
2
4.4 Zinc Oxide 96
4.4.1 Processes and Properties of ZnO 96
4.5 Zirconium Dioxide 101
4.5.1 Processes and Properties of ZrO 101
2
4.6 Hafnium Dioxide 107
4.6.1 Processes and Properties of HfO 107
2
4.7 Other Oxides 112
4.7.1 Tin Oxide 112
4.7.2 Indium Oxide 115
4.7.3 Tantalum Oxide 116
4.8 Mixed Oxides and Nanolaminates 124
4.8.1 Mixed Oxide Processes 125
4.8.2 Nanolaminate Oxides 139
4.9 Multilayers 150
References 151
5 Nitrides and Other Compounds 161
5.1 Introduction 161
5.2 Nitrides 162
5.2.1 Transition Metal Nitrides 162
5.2.2 Group III Nitrides 171
5.2.3 Group IV Nitrides 173
5.2.4 Mixed Nitrides 174
5.3 Chalcogenides 176
5.4 Other Compounds 179
References 179
Contents vii
6 Metals 183
6.1 Introduction 183
6.2 Noble Metals 184
6.2.1 Silver Processes and Applications 184
6.2.2 Ruthenium Processes and Applications 186
6.2.3 Platinum and Palladium Processes and
Applications 189
6.2.4 Rhrodium Processes and Applications 191
6.2.5 Iridium Processes and Applications 191
6.3 Titanium 193
6.4 Tantalum 196
6.5 Aluminum 198
6.6 Copper 200
6.7 Other Transition Metals 203
References 204
7 Organic and Hybrid Materials 207
7.1 Introduction 207
7.2 Organic layers 208
7.3 Hybrid Organic-inorganic Layers. 209
7.4 Applications of Organic and Hybrid Films 212
References 213
8 ALD Applications and Industry 215
8.1 Introduction 215
8.2 MEMS/NEMS 217
8.3 Thin Film Magnetic Heads 223
8.4 Coating Nanoparticles, Nanomaterials and
Porous Objects 224
8.5 Optical Coatings 226
8.6 Thin Film Electroluminescent Displays 228
8.7 Solar Cells 229
8.8 Anti-corrosion Layers 231
8.9 Opportunities in Organic Electronics 234
8.10 ALD Tool Manufacturers and Coating Providers 236
References 238
Index 243
Acknowledgements
Tommi and Marja-Leena Kääriäinen are grateful for their children
Emil, Elsa, and Elias and would like to thank for their love and
inspiring moments in life.
David Cameron dedicates this work to his wife, Eileen, for her
unfailing love and support and to his children Petra and Alasdair
and granddaughter, Rose.
Arthur Sherman would like to acknowledge the support of his
family (daughters Linda and Jan, and son Douglas, as well as four
beautiful grandchildren Ashley, Daniil, Andrew and Sara). An
affectionate thank you is also extended to Sandra Tenenbaum
ix
Foreword
The fi eld of atomic layer deposition (ALD) has experienced tremen-
dous growth over the past ten years. The Web of Science reveals that
nearly 900 publications in 2012 and over 5000 publications since 2002
had “atomic layer deposition” in their abstracts or key words. If we
include the earlier use of “atomic layer epitaxy” to refer to the fi eld,
then we can add over 1500 more publications from the past thirty
years. Why has the growth of ALD increased so dramatically over the
past ten years? There are many contributing factors that include the
development of new ALD materials and the availability of commercial
ALD reactors. The wealth of ALD materials means that many applica-
tions can be addressed with known ALD chemistries to deposit the
thin fi lm. The many companies selling ALD reactors means that ALD
practitioners can concentrate on their applications and do not need to
worry about building their own ALD reactors.
Another important factor to explain the dramatic growth of ALD
over the past ten years is that more people are becoming aware of
the superior features of ALD and the importance of these features
to nanofabrication technology. These characteristics have been
well known since their introduction by Suntola in the early 1980s.
The virtue of sequential, self-limiting surface chemistry to achieve
conformal and atomic layer controlled growth was presented over
thirty years ago. Although many important ideas are recorded in the
literature, only a few really come to fruition and become the basis
for an entire industry. One key event that stimulated interest in ALD
and subsequent recognition for ALD was the semiconductor indus-
try realizing that they needed ALD for high K gate oxides to replace
SiO . This pivotal event occurred approximately 10-12 years ago
2
when ALD was placed prominently on the semiconductor roadmap
for high K gate oxides.
xi
xii Foreword
This revised book on ALD is a welcome addition to the fi eld of
ALD and will be very useful for experts and beginners alike. The
book provides an up-to-date review of ALD including the rapidly
developing plasma ALD and spatial ALD processes. The core of
the book provides a description of the variety of ALD chemistries
for semiconductor, oxide, nitride, metal and hybrid material fi lms.
Many of these ALD chemistries did not even exist ten years ago. One
chapter is dedicated to semiconductor epitaxial fi lms and reviews
the early work on silicon and germanium ALD. Another chapter
describes the important oxide ALD fi lms that have pioneered many
of the important applications for ALD over the last ten years. The
book ends with a summary of the current ALD applications that are
driving the fi eld and leading to new ALD commercialization. Most
of these applications were only on the drawing board ten years ago.
This book should also serve as a springboard for future develop-
ments of ALD. Knowledge of the past is an important foundation
for moving into the future. As the ALD fi eld moves forward, we
will want to identify: the key challenges that are currently limit-
ing progress in ALD; the critical developments that are needed to
advance ALD state-of-the-art; and the new applications that may
benefi t from ALD methods. This book provides the present ALD
status quo that will provide a baseline to measure future progress.
The last ten years have brought tremendous progress, and contin-
ued growth is on the horizon. One thing is for certain: ALD will
continue to be an integral part of nanofabrication technology as we
move into the future.
Steven George
March 2013