Atmospheric Corrosion

397 Pages·2016·7.703 MB·English

by  Christofer Leygraf, Inger Odnevall Wallinder, Johan Tidblad, Thomas Graedel

Atmospheric corrosion
the eLectrochemicAL societY series
ECS‐The Electrochemical Society
65 South Main Street
Pennington, NJ 08534‐2839
http://www.electrochem.org
A complete list of the titles in this series appears at the end of this volume.
Atmospheric
corrosion
Second Edition
christofer LeYgrAf
KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
inger odnevALL WALLinder
KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
JohAn tidbLAd
Swerea KIMAB, Stockholm, Sweden
thomAs grAedeL
Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
Copyright © 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Leygraf, Christofer. | Odnevall Wallinder, Inger. | Tidblad, Johan, 1964– | Graedel, T. E.
Title: Atmospheric corrosion.
Description: Second edition / Christofer Leygraf, Inger Odnevall Wallinder, Johan Tidblad,
Thomas Graedel. | Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., [2016] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016015705| ISBN 9781118762271 (cloth) | ISBN 9781118762189 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Corrosion and anti-corrosives.
Classification: LCC TA418.74 .L49 2016 | DDC 620.1/1223–dc23 LC record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2016015705
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface xv
1 the Many Faces of Atmospheric Corrosion 1
1.1 Dr. Vernon’s Legacy 1
1.2 Concepts and Consequences 2
1.3 The Evolution of a Field 3
1.4 Controlled Laboratory Environments 4
1.5 Uncontrolled Field Environments 5
1.6 New Approaches to Atmospheric Corrosion Studies 6
1.7 An Overview of this Book 6
2 A Conceptual Picture of Atmospheric Corrosion 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Initial Stages of Atmospheric Corrosion 7
2.2.1 Surface Hydroxylation 7
2.2.2 Adsorption and Absorption of Water 8
2.3 Intermediate Stages of Atmospheric Corrosion 11
2.3.1 Gas Deposition 11
2.3.2 Change in Liquid Layer Chemistry 12
2.3.3 Proton‐ and Ligand‐Induced Metal Dissolution 12
2.3.4 Ion Pairing 13
2.3.5 Photosensitivity 14
2.3.6 Nucleation of Corrosion Products 14
vi CONTENTS
2.4 Final Stages of Atmospheric Corrosion 17
2.4.1 Coalescence of Corrosion Products 17
2.4.2 Aging and Thickening of Corrosion Products 18
Further Reading 20
3 A Multiregime Perspective on Atmospheric Corrosion Chemistry 22
3.1 Introduction to Moist‐Layer Chemistry 22
3.2 The Gaseous Regime 24
3.3 The Interface Regime 25
3.4 The Liquid Regime 27
3.5 The Deposition Regime 28
3.6 The Electrodic Regime 30
3.7 The Solid Regime 31
3.8 The Multiregime Perspective 32
Further Reading 32
4 Atmospheric Gases and their Involvement in Corrosion 34
4.1 Chemical Species of Interest 34
4.2 Atmospheric Corrosive Gases 35
4.2.1 Carbon Dioxide 35
4.2.2 Ozone 36
4.2.3 Ammonia 36
4.2.4 Nitrogen Dioxide 37
4.2.5 Hydrogen Sulfide 37
4.2.6 Sulfur Dioxide 38
4.2.7 Hydrogen Chloride 39
4.2.8 Organic Acids 39
4.2.9 Corrosive Species in Aerosol Particles and Precipitation 39
4.3 Historic Trends in Atmospheric Corrosive
Gas Concentrations 40
4.3.1 Carbon Dioxide 40
4.3.2 Ozone 42
4.3.3 Ammonia 42
4.3.4 Nitrogen Dioxide 42
4.3.5 Hydrogen Sulfide 42
4.3.6 Sulfur Dioxide 42
4.3.7 Hydrogen Chloride 43
4.3.8 Organic Acids 43
4.3.9 Summary of Historic Trends 43
4.4 Predicted Future Emissions of Corrosive Species 43
Further Reading 45
5 Atmospheric Particles and their Involvement in Corrosion 46
5.1 Introduction 46
5.2 Chemical Species of Interest 49
CONTENTS vii
5.3 Sources of Atmospheric Aerosol Particles 50
5.4 Aerosol Particle Physics and Chemistry 51
5.5 Implications of Aerosol Particles for Atmospheric Corrosion 55
Further Reading 57
6 Corrosion in Laboratory exposures 59
6.1 The Need for Well‐Defined Laboratory Experiments 59
6.2 Considerations for Specific Metals 59
6.3 Design Considerations 60
6.3.1 Exposure Chamber 60
6.3.2 Sample Preparation 60
6.3.3 Relative Humidity 61
6.3.4 Temperature 61
6.3.5 Exposure Time 61
6.3.6 Corrosive Substances 62
6.3.7 Delivery of Corrosive Substances 63
6.3.8 Corrosion Effect Measurements 64
6.4 Examples of Important Laboratory Exposures 65
6.4.1 Laboratory Exposures for Scientific Purposes 65
6.4.2 Laboratory Exposures for Industrial Applications 66
6.5 Can Corrosion Processes in the Field be Reasonably
Simulated by Laboratory Experiments? 67
6.6 Computational Model Studies of SO‐Induced Atmospheric
2
Corrosion of Copper 70
6.6.1 Copper Corrosion Induced by SO 70
2
6.6.2 Copper Corrosion Induced by SO + O or SO + NO 74
2 3 2 2
6.6.3 Anodic and Cathodic Reactions in the GILDES Model 75
6.7 Summary 76
Further Reading 77
7 Corrosion in Indoor exposures 79
7.1 General Characteristics of Indoor Environments 79
7.1.1 Relative Humidity and Temperature 79
7.1.2 Deposition Velocity 80
7.1.3 Atmospheric Gases 80
7.1.4 Atmospheric Particles 84
7.2 The Interplay Between Pollutants and Corrosion Rates 85
7.3 Corrosion Rates 88
7.3.1 Measurements of Indoor Corrosion Rates 88
7.3.2 Corrosion Kinetics 89
7.3.3 Corrosion Rate Data 90
7.4 Indoor Corrosion Products 93
7.5 Indoor Environmental Classification 94
7.6 An Example of Indoor Corrosion: Metal Artifacts 95
7.7 Summary 98
Further Reading 99
viii CONTENTS
8 Corrosion in outdoor exposures 100
8.1 The Effect of Exposure Conditions 100
8.2 Design Considerations 101
8.2.1 Selection of Exposure Site and Instrumentation 101
8.2.2 Specimens and Specimen Mounting 102
8.2.3 Specimen Removal and Corrosion Evaluation 102
8.3 Influence of Exposure Parameters 103
8.3.1 The Complex Interplay 103
8.3.2 Time of Wetness 105
8.3.3 Temperature 107
8.3.4 Rain Shelter 108
8.3.5 Sheltered and Unsheltered Outdoor Exposure:
An Example for Zinc 109
8.3.6 Corrosion Rates 109
8.3.7 Nitrogen Dioxide and Ozone 113
8.4 Dose–Response Functions 114
8.4.1 Determination and Estimation of Corrosion Rates 114
8.4.2 Dose–Response Functions for Estimating
Corrosivity Categories 115
8.4.3 Dose–Response Functions for the SO‐Dominating
2
Situation 116
8.4.4 Dose–Response Functions for the 
Multipollutant Situation 117
8.5 Summary 118
Further Reading 118
9 Advanced stages of Corrosion 121
9.1 Introduction 121
9.2 Evolution of Corrosion Products on Zinc 122
9.2.1 Chloride‐Dominated Sheltered Exposure 124
9.2.2 Sulfate‐Dominated Sheltered Exposure 128
9.2.3 Unsheltered Exposure 130
9.3 Evolution of Corrosion Products on Copper 131
9.3.1 Sulfate‐Dominated Sheltered Exposure 131
9.3.2 Chloride‐Dominated Sheltered Exposure 137
9.3.3 Unsheltered Exposure 138
9.3.4 Other Patina Constituents 138
9.4 Evolution of Corrosion Products on Carbon Steel 140
9.5 Evolution of Corrosion Products on Aluminum 144
9.6 Summary 146
Further Reading 148
CONTENTS ix
10 environmental Dispersion of Metals From Corroded
outdoor Constructions 151
10.1 Introduction 151
10.2 Metal Dispersion (Runoff): Atmospheric Corrosion 152
10.3 Time‐Dependent Aspects and Importance of Rain
and Environmental Conditions 154
10.4 Influence of Construction Geometry on the Metal Runoff
and Runoff Rate Predictions 159
10.5 Environmental Fate and Speciation: Importance for 
Risk Assessment and Management 162
Further Reading 163
11 Applied Atmospheric Corrosion: electronic Devices 166
11.1 Introduction 166
11.2 Corrosion‐Induced Failures of Contacts
and Connectors 168
11.3 Corrosion‐Induced Failures of Integrated Circuits 170
11.4 Accelerated Tests of Electronics 174
11.5 Classification of Environments with Respect to Corrosivity 175
11.6 Methods of Protection 177
11.6.1 Selection of Materials and Design of Components 177
11.6.2 Manufacture, Transport, and Storage 179
11.6.3 Installation and Service 179
Further Reading 180
12 Applied Atmospheric Corrosion: Automotive Corrosion
and Corrosion in the Road environment 181
12.1 Introduction 181
12.2 Typical Corrosion Rates in the Road Environment 182
12.3 Parameters Affecting Corrosion in Road Environments 183
12.3.1 Effect of Salting Frequency 183
12.3.2 Effect of Sheltering 184
12.3.3 Deicing Salts and Effect of Different Cations 184
12.3.4 The Temperature and Relative Humidity Complex 186
12.4 Corrosion of Vehicles 188
12.5 Accelerated Corrosion Testing for Automotive Applications 190
Further Reading 196
13 Applied Atmospheric Corrosion: Alloys in Architecture 198
13.1 Introduction 198
13.2 Varying Exposure Conditions 199
x CONTENTS
13.3 Copper‐Based Alloys 200
13.3.1 Corrosion Mechanisms 201
13.3.2 Application Aspects 205
13.4 Aluminum–Zinc Alloys 208
13.4.1 Corrosion Mechanisms 209
13.4.2 Application Aspects 212
13.5 Weathering Steel 214
13.5.1 Corrosion Mechanisms 214
13.5.2 Application Aspects 216
13.6 Stainless Steel 218
13.6.1 Corrosion Mechanisms 218
13.6.2 Application Aspects 220
Further Reading 221
14 Applied Atmospheric Corrosion: Unesco Cultural Heritage sites 224
14.1 Introduction 224
14.2 Description of Selected Sites 225
14.2.1 The Klementinum, Prague, Czech Republic 225
14.2.2 Acropolis, Athens, Greece 226
14.3 Estimation of Corrosion Rates 227
14.3.1 Corrosion of Carbon Steel and Zinc in Prague
and around the Klementinum 228
14.3.2 Corrosion of Portland Limestone in Athens 229
14.4 Estimation of Corrosion Costs 229
14.4.1 Estimating Renovation Costs and Stock of 
Materials at Risk 230
14.4.2 Estimating Amenity Loss 232
14.5 Preventing Further Damage Through Air Quality Policy 234
14.5.1 Calculation of Air Pollution Costs 234
14.5.2 Assessment of Tolerable Corrosion Rates 235
Further Reading 236
15 scenarios for Atmospheric Corrosion in the twenty‐First
Century 238
15.1 Atmospheric Corrosion in the Recent Millenium 239
15.2 Atmospheric Corrosion in the Twentieth Century and Today 240
15.3 Atmospheric Corrosion in the Twenty‐First Century:
Effect of Changes in Pollution 242
15.4 Atmospheric Corrosion in the Twenty‐First Century:
Effect of Changes in Climate 246
15.5 Responding to Increasing Rates of Corrosion 246
Further Reading 248