Table Of Content·· . .
l\lo.6 June I 997 . £ i!.SO
'•
Beyond
IndiJaOnnae st he
v.
MothGeord dess
Constructing
and gender
sex
in archaeology
feminist exploration
. A
of bronze age (rete-
·
Weavitnhgwe o rld
Spinning in myths
and folktales
Pussycaptu,s sycat,
youb een?
where have
Exploring new
interpretations of
past and place in
archaeology, folklore
and mythology
Issue No.6 June 1997 ISSN 1361-0058
Editor: Bob T rubs haw
Contents:
2 Cross Hill Close, Wymeswold,
Bob Tru bshaw Loughborough, LE12 6VJ
Beyond Indiana Jones versus the Mother Cjoddess 1
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Constructing sex and gender in archaeology 6 WWW: http:// www.gmtnet.co.uk/
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)ones
Indiana
vefSUS
the Mother Goddess
At the Edge aims to cover the broad territory The 1980s saw some pioneering work on
where the disciplines of archaeology, folklore and archaeological approaches to women and gender
mythology 'converge' on place-related topics. This but not until 1991 did a major study of feminism
is a wide-ranging scope in its own right. Why then in archaeology appear in print (Gero and Conkey
should we be moving off into the apparently 1991). Indeed, the title of one of the key papers
unrelated topics of sex and gender? Put simply, in this volume asked 'Why is there no archaeology
the answer is that those who are questioning how of gender?' (Wylie 1991), although the author
modern society constructs sex and gender are acknowledged that the absence was not quite
creating waves which ripple out into the total.
comparative backwaters of, say, sacred This is not to say that archaeology and
landscapes and 'earth mysteries'. However, so far feminism had not already crossed paths, although
as I am aware, little of the exciting and the results have left a legacy which is far from
provocative thinking in gender issues has been admissible. Marija Gimbutas's interpretations of
surfacing in the more popular periodicals. This the early neolithic society at Catal Huyuk in
issue of At the Edge makes attempts to get behind Anatolia created the 'mythopoetics' of a peaceful,
the verbosity and highlight some of the ideas that egalitarian, female-led society who worshipped a
are emerging. Great Mother Goddess. Gimbutas's ideas may be
The deeply entrenched ideology of Western unacceptable to the current generation of
culture has created biased thinking at the deepest academics but they have become thoroughly
levels of anthropological and scientific theory and entrenched in popular literature, making Catal
method. This legacy of 'modernism' is being
challenged from two main directions: firstly, by
postmodern critiques and, secondly, by fe1ninism.
There are some similarities between the two
movements but few feminists are willing to label
themselves postmodernists and, similarly, many
who might be described as postmodernists are
profoundly sceptical of recent feminist thinking.
Those who have delved into the feminist
approach re-emerge with uncompromising vigour:
'The issues raised by taking gender seriously
are extraordinarily varied and have significant
ramifications . . .' (Conkey and Tringham 1995:
203-4)
'The issues at stake are far from trivial.
Postmodernism is challenging, among other
things, the fundamental dichotomies of
Enlightenment thought, dichotomies such as
rationaVirrational and subject/object. It is
questioning the homocentricity of Enlightenment
knowledge and even the status of "man" himself.'
(Hekman 1990: 2)
' . . . m ore than any approach within the
human sciences, feminism does fundamental
damage to the established traditions of working
within archaeology . . .' (Thomas 1992: 12)
At the Edge 1 No.6 June1997
challenges facing a poor,
coloured, single-mother are
distinct from the challenges
facing an affluent 'bachelor girl'
intent on creating a high-status
career in the male-dominated
Huyuk the archaeological site world of commerce. In some
par excellence for feminists. traditional societies, the range
I have no wish to summarise of female roles is at least as
all the reasons why Gimbutas is varied. Just as there are various
'out of fashion' in academe as roles for women, so polemical
this has been done adequately feminism has also fragmented
elsewhere {see especially into distinct approaches, such
Meskell 1995 and 1996; also that it is now more appropriate
Conkey and Tringham 1995; to refer to 'feminisms' rather
Hamilton et al. 1996; Georgoudi than 'fe1ninism'. What might be
1992). What these researchers termed 'third-wave feminism' is
emphasise is that Gimbutas, concerned with culture,
. although now the best-known of knowledge, language and
the advocates of a pan-neolithic representation.
'Mother Goddess', was not
alone. Indeed, a number of her Many genders
key arguments are based on the rejected, resulting in the
interpretations of highly privileging of nurturing, We are not talking here
respected male archaeologists of relatedness and 'irrational' simply about the 'substitution' of
the 40s and 50s. thinking {more accurately, what male/female with an equivalent
An example of the false logic 1night be termed a different pair of 'gender roles'. Such
in Gimbutas's interpretations kind of rationality). Feminist one-to-one links between sex
can be seen in one of her thinking in the 80s and 90s has and gender are naive. A quick
best-known ideas, that the high rejected such over-generalised glance at modern Western
frequency of 'Mother Goddess' dualistic oppositions and society reveals homosexuals anrl
images in the neolithic reflected considers the greater variability lesbians. A less furtive glance
the dominant position of women and diversity that exists within soon shows that both of these
in society. However, history gender roles. Rather than 'genders' can be subdivided into
reveals that the presence of reversing the dualism, at least two gender roles, to
powerful goddesses in a religious postmodern feminism seeks to which can be added a 'middle
pantheon rarely reflects anything dissolve the distinction. Put ground' of various bisexual
about the role of females in that succinctly, gender is the way 'options'. Indeed, male
society. For instance, the cultures use sexual differences. homosexuality encompasses a
prevalence of statues of the When the term 'woman' is great diversity of gender roles -
Virgin Mary in pre-Reformation unpacked it contains a range of and 'closet gays' {or whatever
churches in no way diminishes possible social identities e.g. one should call gays who are not
the profoundly misogynic variations in social status/ 'out') almost inevitably play out
inclinations of the Roman wealth; young women; old different roles at different times
Catholic clergy. Female figurines women; priestesses; etc. In or places.
do not 'express' female power modern Western society, the A more lingering look at
and Gimbutas and her followers modern subcultures would also
have perpetrated a non sequitur divulge a wide range of gender
akin to observing that the roles among those who are
popularity of Barbie dolls means sexually 'straight' . Such variety
that Goddess worship is is far from modern - traditional
widespread in American society. European society also knew of
'sexless women' {such as nuns)
From feminism to and, although the literature is
scanty, must have coped with
feminisms physical hermaphrodites {which
naturally occur once in about
'First Wave' feminism of the 1,000 births although these are
60s and 70s countered now 'corrected' by surgery).
androcentrism with equally Rather than reversing the The ambiguous status of
extreme gynocentrism. 'Male' women past child-bearing age
dualism, postmodem feminism
values of domination, rational has led to, on the one hand,
seeks to dissolve the distinction.
thinking and abstraction were their being acclaimed as healers
At the Edge .2 No.6 June1997
area where 'trained' amateurs
can contribute alongside
professionals - although it
would be widening the scope of
this article too far to discuss
how professionaVamateur form
all-too-obvious dualisms within
archaeology.
Cjender in folklore
Unlike archaeology, folklore
and mythology in recent
decades reveal a much better
balance between male and
female exponents, both in the
'middle ranks' and in the higher
echelons. This is not to say that
there have not been some
overly-dominant men (see
Billington 1995 and Boyes
1993).
Mythology has its own
'Gimbutas', although
intriguingly it is a man who
promoted a 'primordial
matriarchy'. Inspired largely by
Plutarch's treatise on Isis and
Osiris, written about AD 120,
Johann Jacob Bachofen
or midwives while, on the other, The boys' club published his major opus on
running the risk of being 'The Mother Right' (Das
ostracised as 'witches' (see But 'engendering Mutterrecht) in 1948. Bachofen
Briggs 1996: 71; 270). archaeology' is not simply does not use the term
Even, as during the about putting gender into the 'matriarchy' but rather such
seventeenth century in England, interpretation of the past. Also terms as 'maternal law' and
when the cultural 'norm' is for is being 'engendered' is the 'gynecocracy'. His style of
women to be attached to process of doing archaeology. writing is 'part poetry, part
fathers, husbands or (while 'in Unlike folklore, where female science' but he develops a
service') their masters, this does researchers have played strongly dualistic view which
not prevent so-called '1nasterless important roles (despite the identifies women with 'mother',
women' from leading their own efforts of some overly-dominant 'nurse', 'seat' and 'site' of
lives - even though they caused males), academic archaeology generation ( Georgoudi 1992:
consternation by defying has a reputation for being a 451). He suggests the human
conventional assumptions about 'boys club' where the quest for race first lived in a period of
women's dependence knowledge has centred on 'chthonian materialism' (with
(Underdown 1985: 36-7). excavation, new scientific undisciplined sexual relations in
Ultimately, in studying methodologies and similar the manner of Aphrodite)
gender roles, one begins to macho concerns. Indiana Jones followed by a more ordered
examine how individuals may be a caricature but he is materialism incorporating both
experience life within specific simply larger-than-life, not agriculture and marriage. This
social and cultural contexts. It is fictitious. phase is exemplified by
this which makes 'engendered The alternative to Demeter, leading to a
studies' so distinct from the excavation is, of course, Dionysiac gynecocracy where
'generalisations' which are still fieldwork and regional surveys. 'the fragility and precariousness
the normal approach to These have never been a of the father's victory' leads to
recreating the past. In her 'macho' activity, despite the paternal principles beginning to
article on 'Constructing sex and excellent results obtained, as dominate ( Georgoudi 1992:
gender in archaeology' in this 1nuch such work is performed 451-4).
issue of At the Edge, Lynn by female archaeologists (see Praised by some and
Meskell sheds light on how she Moser 1996). A number of criticised by others, Bachofen's
is adopting such an approach to readers of At the Edge will work on matriarchy is still the
her own critique of ancient quickly recognise that starting point for all histories of
peoples of the Aegean. fieldwork has been deemed an matriarchy - including both
At the Edge 3 No.6 June1997
It should be emphasised demure maidens, although there
that most of the researchers are enough clues to suggest a
who are re-examining the grislier earlier role - possibly
gender prejudices of priestesses of the cult of Ooinn
gf!ndf!t tOll!�, onf! bf!gin� mythology and early societies, who sacrificed captives to their
while often female, are not god. The Irish warbands had
to f!xaminf! how polemical feminists. In The female members who
individual� l!Xpl!tif!nCf! Feminist Companion to sometimes fought alongside the
Mythology (Larrington 1992) men and so were more akin to
lifu within �pl!cific �ocial world mythology is examined 'shield maidens' than mere
by 21 female authors with a camp followers tending wounds
and cultutal contf!xt�.
special emphasis on the and other needs (Pollington
identity and function of 1996: 70).
female mythical figures. In A
History of Women: From Rituals of women's
Ancient Goddesses to
Christian Saints (Pantel initiation
1992), 15 women and a
solitary man similarly explore The ethnographic literature
how women have been has long concerned itself with
depicted in early historical initiation rituals of traditional
records. Clearly, in the societies. Much of the early
pre-medieval eras which are fieldwork was by men, so there
·
being discussed in these would be few opportunities to
books, history and mythology explore women's rites, and as a
intermingle closely. Such direct result men's initiation
'piecemeal' examination of rituals dominate the established
specific historical societies literature. However, in recent
reveals a deniai of women's decades the increasing number
identity in myth, religion and of female field workers has
culture (see also Eilberg begun to reveal how much
Swartz and Doniger 1995; evidence has been inaccessible
and Birrell 1996 for a rare to (or, more probably, simply
example of a feminist view of missed by) male researchers.
Chinese myths). Based on available accounts,
Taking as an example the more than half (56 percent) the
Germanic warbands of the traditional societies initiate
early medieval era, usually girls, but less than half {38
considered to be especially percent) initiate boys. Very few
'macho', the detailed study by (7 percent) initiate both. 'Girl's
Enright (1996) reveals that rituals often differ from boys in
women had an ambiguous exhibiting sexual licence,
high-status role - encompass privileged obscenity or mockery
interpretations based on ing the powerful roles of of men and male occupations;
psychoanalysis and on arbiter of social rank and of while nothing similar takes
Marxist-influenced thought. seeress within the place during the transformation
However, the difficulties of superficially low-status of boys. . . . Such behaviour is
Bachofen's complex prose function of serving the mead not a spontaneous reaction to
mean that his ideas have been cup to guests. the occasion but a necessary
overly simplified or are Independently, Pollington part of the proceedings.' (La
inaccurately presented. (1996) has shown that, while F ontaine 1985: 1 08; 164-5; a
However, even if Bachofen's warfare was generally striking re-examination of the
ideas received a lukewarm regarded as men's work in rituals of women's initiation can
welcome in the conservative Germanic and Anglo-Saxon be found in Lincoln, 1981.)
world of Classical studies, his societies, there are enough
notions are still pervasive. allusions in the literatures of Cracks or structural
Those who have embarked on the northern peoples to
a critical re-examination of suggest that women had a defects�
Bachofen find that they are powerful role. The Norse
removing nearly all the lower valkyrjar ( valkyries) are I have deliberately merely
levels of the 'tower of cards' women dedicated to Ooinn 'dipped a toe' into the various
making up the prevailing who share the military life of oceans of recent research which
interpretations of the Classical his devotees. In later are re-examining all aspects of
societies. literature they appear as anthropology. By rejecting the
At the Edge 4 No.6 June1997
preconceptions of modern 1992, The Feminist Companion
androcentricity and the to Mythology, HarperCollins
diminutive range of gender UNCOLN, Bruce, 1981,
roles which are readily Emerging from the Chrysalis:
acknowledged in Western Studies of Rituals of Women's
society then, firstly, richer and Initiation, Harvard University
more varied versions of past Press.
civilizations begin to crack MESKELL, Lynn M., 1995,
open - and quickly those 'Goddesses, Gimbutas and
cracks extend to risk toppling ''New Age" archaeology',
the entire edifice of how we Antiquity, Vol.69, No.262,
'recreate' the lives of people pp74-86
who are, more than ever MESKELL, Lynn M., 1996,
before, different from 'F eminis1n, paganism,
ourselves. pluralism'; unpublished paper
However, as Julian Thomas presented at TAG 96.
(1996) reminds us, for men MOSER, Stephanie, 1996,
there is 'the awful dilemma of 'Science, stratigraphy and the
being a bloke and liking deep sequence: excavation vs
feminist theory' as the The awful dilemma of being a regional survey and the question
fascination of feminist ideas bloke and liking feminist theOTy. ofgendered practice in
'can become a means to an archaeology', Antiquity, Vol.70,
end, a way of addressing other No.270, pp813-23.
questions' whereas for women, Stanton and Stewart, 1995. PANTEL, Pauline Schmitt (ed),
feminism is above all a means EILBERG-SCHWA RTZ, 1992, A History �f Women:
of achieving one's own Howard and We ndy From Ancient Goddesses to
emancipation. DONIGER (eds), 1995, Qff Christian Saints, Harvard
with Her Head! The Denial of University Press.
Acknowledgements Women's Identity in Myth, POLUNGTON, Stephen, 1996,
Religion and Culture, The English Warriorfrom
My thanks to Julian University of California Press. Earliest Times to 1066,
Thomas and Lynn Meskell for ENRIGHT, Michael J., 1996, Anglo-Saxon Books.
making available their Lady with a Mead Cup: Ritual, SPENCER-WOOD, Suzanne,
unpublished papers. Lynn and Prophecy and Lordship in the 1996, exchange of ideas with
Kathryn Denning both kindly European Warband.from La Julian Thomas on Arch-Theory
commented on an earlier draft Tene to the Viking Age, Four e-mail list, especially 18 Nov.
of this article (although neither Courts Press. Archived at http://
necessarily agree with all 1ny GEORGOUDI, Stella, 1992, noir.mailbase. ac. uk/lists/
remarks). 'Creating a Myth of arch-theory/
Matriarchy' in Pantel (1992). STANTON, Domna C. and
References GERO, Joan M. and Margaret Abigail J. STEW ART (eds),
W. CONKEY (eds), 1991, 1995, Feminisms in the
BILLINGTON, Sandra, 1996, Engendering Archaeology: Academy, University of
preface to S. Billington and M. Women and Prehistory, Basil Michigan Press.
Green (eds), The Concept of · Blackwell. THOMAS, Julian, 1992,
the Goddess, Routledge. HAMILTON, Naomi, Joyce 'Gender politics and American
BIRRELL, Anne, 1996, 'Where Marcus, Douglass Bailey, archaeology' in Anthropology
Daedalus meets Yu Ch'ui: a Gunnar and Randi Haaland Today Vol.8 No.3 (June)
workshop on Chinese myth and Peter J. Ucko, [series of p12-13.
studies' in Cosmos Vol.12, individual articles), 1996, 'Can THOMAS, Julian, 1996, 'Men,
No.1 (June 1996), pp53-63. we interpret figurines?' in feminism and gender
BOYES, Georgina, 1993, The Cambridge Archaeological archaeology'; unpublished paper
Imagined Village: Culture, Journal, Vol.6, No.2 presented at TAG 96.
ideology and the English folk (October), pp281-307 WYLIE, Alison, 1991, 'Gender
revival, Manchester UP. HEKMAN, Susan J., 1990, theory and the archaeological
BRIGGS, Robin, 1996, Gender and Knowledge: record: why is there no
Witches and neighbours, Elements of a Postmodern archaeology of gender?' in Gero
HarperCollins. Feminism, Polity Press. and Conkey, 1991: 31-54.
CONKEY, Margaret W. and LA FONTAINE, Jean S., 1985, UNDERDOWN, David, 1985,
Ruth E. TRINGHAM, 1995, Initiations: ritual drama and Revel, Riot and Rebellion:
'Archaeology and the Goddess: secret knowledge across the Popular Politics and Culture in
Exploring the Contours of wod� Penguin. England 1603-160Q Clarendon.
Fe1ninist Archaeology' in LARRINGTON, Carolyne,
At the Edge 5 No.6 June1997
Constru ting
____
_
Sex and Gendef
in Archaeology
In the past decade LYNN MESKELL graduated with a BA (Hons) and University
archaeologists have become Medal from the University of Sydney in 1994. She currently holds
increasingly interested in a King's College scholarship in Cambridge whilst undertaking her
. constructions of gender in past PhD in the Department of Archaeology. The topic of her doctoral
societies and have endeavoured thesis is the Egyptian social system with particular reference to age,
to {re )construct the culturally sex and class in domestic and mortuary contexts. Her research
specific meanings of those interests include archaeology and socio-politics, feminist and
categories. Basically, masculinist theory as well as queer theory and the body. She
archaeologists engage in a form writes widely on Egyptian and Mediterranean archaeology.
of gender tourism with the past:
I take this term to describe our
contemporary excursions into First Wave, Second to restore women's visibility and
gender constructions and to politicise their reinstatement.
experiences in the past. From Wave, Third Wave? This was by no means the only
this perspective archaeologists rationale behind the First
fulfil the role of tourist or I want to begin by clarifying Wave, though this is how it has
voyeur, exploring distant some of the theoretical issues been defined historically. So in
cultures from which we are which directly affect archaeology, the feminist
separated through time and archaeology in the 90s and influence instigated various
space. We attempt to travel in explore the potentials of studies which focused upon the
unknown territories, exploring extending our horizons beyond position of women in the past,
Other cultures and Other the discourse of gender. Whilst whilst simultaneously
constructions of self trying to academic feminism has highlighting the inherent male
envisage ourselves in smneone experienced two waves of bias of the discipline. Many of
else's body, situated in a foreign theorising, and is currently the influential anthropological
society, performing their tasks engaged in what I consider a studies of the time sought to
and their rituals. Despite all third, archaeology is still explain the seemingly universal
attempts, our ventures at immersed in the first wave. In subordination of women, and it
present represent fairly fact, archaeology has been a appears that archaeology also
superficial excursions. One latecomer to the concept of contributed to the long view. It
particularly popular destination gender (see papers in Gero and must be said that in archaeology
is the Aegean, because its rich Conkey 1991; Walde and this First Wave did not
suite of iconographic material Willows 1991). Within the encompass the full spectrum of
has suggested to generations of discipline the contributions of gender, in that it focused on
scholars the possibility that a feminism and gender, research women and only recently have
very different set of gender have been considered to be the Third sex/genders and children
relations was operative. I would same thing, whereas it is more been considered. Constructions
like to firstly address current correct to view them as of masculinity in specific
developments in feminist and separate entities, though there cultural and historical contexts
masculinist theory and their is often a significant overlap. have not really been addressed
relationship to archaeology. I For example, a scholar can be as yet. In sum, archaeology still
will then examine 1nore closely interested in gender relations continues to engage in gendered
the Aegean to see how sex and without being overtly feminist in studies which focus on the
gender have been constructed their political outlook. For the identification and elaboration of
by archaeologists in the most part archaeologists have women for the most part. Few
twentieth century and how this been concerned with one have questioned this
relates to current ideas in central project of First Wave phenomenon or acknowledged
feminist theory. feminism, which was essentially that this approach fails to
At the Edge 6 No.6 June 1997
provide any radical departure
from the traditional ways of
doing archaeology. Taking a
cynical view, it could be said
that one focus has simply been
replaced by another.
Developments from Second
Wave feminism, masculinist
theory 1, queer theory2 and the
many different positions
adopted within those fields have
not been adopted by
archaeology to date. To
illustrate this point, consider
the way archaeologists have
accepted the Western binary
construction of sex and gender
and have then automatically
applied it to past cultures. Most
anthropologists today realise
that such a simple dual model is
not applicable in living cultures
across the globe today.
However, in archaeology most
scholars still view sex as a fixed
concept, based on the
'objective' findings of biology.
This is contrasted with the
socially constructed category of
Fragment of a wall painting, some 60cm high from the palace of
gender, acting as a flexible layer
Knossos, Crete. The scene possibly depicts a bull leaping event.
on top of the stable category
sex. Sex itself is perceived as All illustrations by Billie Walker-John.
another dualism, where male
and female are the only binaries can be traced to the question my own research has
appositional possibilities. The philosophy of Descartes, though prompted me to ask is whether
sex:gender dichotomy is some go back to Greek we really need two socially
paralleled by other dualisms we philosophers like Plato and constructed categories, sex and
are all familiar with such as Aristotle. gender? As Grosz has stated,
nature:culture, active:passive, Archaeology needs to be "this notion of gender now
male:female. Many of these aware of more recent seems largely irrelevant or
formulations of sex, such as redundant, a term unnecessary
1 Masculinist theory is those proposed by historians of for describing the vast social
:
usually part of sociology or the science or philosophers arrangements, contexts, and
social sciences more generally respectively. Foucault's much variations in the ways in which
and is formulated to study the debated work on the social we live, give meaning to, and
male subject and that construction of sex (1978, 1986, enact sex" (Grosz 1995:212).
engendered construction in 1985) has been taken up by For me, gender is an
various times, locations and radical scholars of queer theory inadequate category because it
cultures. It is not androcentric such as Judith Butler (1993) fails to account for sexuality and
in the negative sense and it was and Elizabeth Grosz (1994, sexual orientation. If we do
largely influenced by, and has 1995). Thomas Laqueur' s dispense with gender, as I have
much in common with, influential study (Laqueur 1990) suggested and have attempted
feminism. has further shown that prior to to do within my own research
2: I have followed David the Enlightenment a one-sex (Meskell 1996), this means that
Halperin's definition of queer model held sway, and this was the concept of sex will have to
(Halperin 1995), which acquires later replaced by with the be examined in its cultural
meaning from its appositional binary structure of two separate context at a highly specific level,
relation to the norm. It sexes we now regard as taking into account other
demarcates a position vis-a-vis objective truth. So in fact constituting factors such as age,
the normative not restricted to contemporary science status, class, ethnicity, religion,
lesbians and gay men, but in constructs its own knowledge sexual orientation, marital
fact to anyone who feels which then inevitably spills over status etc. which operate at a
marginalised because of their into social relations, yet neither highly individualistic level. This
sexual practices. operate in isolation. The presents archaeology with a
At the Edge 7 No.6 June 1997
feminists. Note that neither sex my dissertation research at the
nor gender as originally defined Egyptian Bronze age site of Deir
adequately account for the full el Medina. My primary focus is
range of sexual difference and social relations incorporating
the full range of diverse sexual settlement and cemetery data,
identities. In the 90s feminists do which encompasses the
not claim to present a unified experiences of individuals.
front and this would be Though it probably began as a
detrimental to the overall female-oriented rebalancing of
project: surely the opening up of history it soon became apparent
the discipline to allow a that simple gender dichotomies
spectrum of positions marks a were seemingly useless, in
truly radical break with isolation, for making sense of
traditional forms of the complex picture of daily life
conservative, authoritarian and death. In many contexts,
scholarship. including my own material, sex
To many, feminism might cannot be isolated out as the
seem a fractured socio-political key principle. The theoretical
movement, though it is via its observations I have offered here
fragmentation that the real come equally from the
potential of the approach experience of doing
especially for archaeology, archaeology, as they have from
becomes manifest. This reading highly politicised
essentially means a shift from feminist texts. Just as the
engaging with broad classes of insights of an informed feminist
data (grouping all women, men, position might add to
children, elites, slaves etc. archaeology's body of theory, so
together and treating them as too might new developments in
Faience figurine known as the the same) to studies which seek masculinist theory, which also
Snake Cjoddess (? t also from the to identify individual concentrate on constructions of
palace of Knossos, c. 1600 BC. constructions of self in all their self, identity and difference.
variability. This entails moving
from essentialist, generalising Multiple Masculinities
highly complex strategy where tendencies to more individual
nothing can be assumed or formulations which seek to At this point I would like to
taken for granted on the basis integrate sex with class, status, introduce the potential
of our own Western twentieth age etc. as they intersect for contributions of masculinist
century categories. individual people. Herein lies the theory, which is a disciplinary
possibilities for Third Wave movement within the social
Fragmented Feminisms feminism and for new theoretical sciences. It should be noted at
developments in archaeology. To the outset that the term
I now want to examine how recap my position, if we continue masculinist should not be
feminist theory has moved to regard sex, or gender, as the conflated with androcentrism or
beyond the sex:gender overriding variable we are male oppression, rather it is an
classification. Second wave limiting the contributions of a engendered concept which
feminism has made virulent holistic, informed feminism seeks to formulate the
attacks on its predecessor, for which seeks to incorporate the masculine subject (Knapp
the racism, classism, and spectrum of difference. Not only 1995). There is an ever
heterosexist agenda which does this represent a .self increasing corpus of literature
underscores its own accounts. defeating exercise, but gender on the male subject, though the
Many have claimed that itself pales into an out-dated impact of such research on
feminists created oppressive, category which has little archaeology is negligible. One of
totalising narratives which theoretical application. the primary issues being
sought to unify all women on This might seem a radical addressed is the social and
the basis of a supposed departure and one which was cultural construction of
biological unity. These similarly derived from highly personal maleness, or the effects of being
failed to factor in the many readings of radical feminist and sexed male in contemporary
differences which individual philosophical texts, rather than society as well as other cultural
women experienced and do from archaeological literature, and temporal contexts.
experience today. Feminist for example. As I indicated Within Western tradition
theory now encompasses before, archaeologists have not male is synonymous with reason
multiple positions initiated by yet incorporated these new and mind. In our society reason
Third World feminists, black theories. However, this initial and emotion have been
activists and radical lesbian gender-scepticism resulted from separated out as binary
At the Edge 8 No.6 June 1997
