Astrophysics Update 2 - Topical and Timely Reviews on Astrophysics

408 Pages·2006·14.615 MB·English

by  J. Mason

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Editor’s Preface
Important developments in astrophysics and cosmology continue at a frenetic
pace,anditisincreasinglydifficulttokeepupwithprogressinthesefields.This
second volume of Astrophysics Update comprises a collection of eleven topical
reviews, each presented as a separate chapter, covering important areas of as-
trophysics and cosmology. The contributions have been written by scientists at
the forefront of research in the selected areas, in a style which, we hope, will be
accessiblenotonlytoadvancedundergraduatestudentsandbeginninggraduate
students, but also to professional astronomers working in the field.
In this volume, we have attempted, once again, to highlight a diverse range
of topics, from studies of the early universe to work in stellar astrophysics. It is
clear that much of the new research is being driven by a combination of multi-
wavelength observations with powerful new ground- and space-based telescopes
together with new and improved facilities for modelling and simulation.
Ten years ago, in 1995, the discovery of Gliese 229B, the first bona fide
‘brown dwarf’, was announced. Since that time an increasing number of objects
less massive and cooler than red M-dwarf stars, but more massive than giant
planets such as Jupiter, have been discovered. It is, therefore, appropriate that
in Chapter 1 of this volume Katharina Lodders and Bruce Fegley look at recent
progress in the classification and chemistry of low mass dwarfs. The authors
discuss the spectral classification of L and T dwarfs, objects which include the
coolestknownstarsandsubstellarobjects,andtheyexaminetheelementswhose
chemistry plays a key role in shaping the optical and infrared spectra of these
so-called “failed” stars.
Neutron stars are the superdense remnants of Type II supernova explosions,
produced in the collapse of massive stars after they have exhausted their avail-
able nuclear fuel. In Chapter 2, Tod Strohmayer examines neutron stars from
the viewpoint that they provide a natural laboratory for the study of matter
under the most extreme conditions of density and pressure, with the strongest
magnetic fields known. The latest attempts to measure neutron star masses and
radii are discussed as they provide a means to constrain important aspects of
neutron star structure and fundamental physics. Recent observational efforts
have concentrated on measurements of X-ray pulsation signals and observations
of the thermal emission from neutron star surfaces.
TheobservationsoftheChandraX-rayObservatory,launchedintoEarthor-
bitin1999,havemadeoutstandingcontributionstomanyareasofastrophysics.
In Chapter 3, Martin Weisskopf and John Hughes discuss how Chandra ob-
VI Editor’s Preface
servations of supernova remnants (SNRs) have provided new insights into the
supernovaphenomenon.Here,Chandraobservationshaveclarifiedtheexistence
of a class of compact central objects associated with SNRs that are radio quiet
andappearunpulsedinX-rays.Chandrahasalsoisolatedandresolvedthestruc-
ture of pulsar wind nebulae. In some cases pulsars have been clearly identified
within SNRs, whilein othersChandrahasbeen unabletoidentify an associated
compact central object.
The study of colliding galaxies has seen enormous progress in recent years,
and in Chapter 4, Curtis Struck discusses a number of key issues in this field.
These include the role of major and minor collisions and mergers in building
galaxies, whether collisions differ in cluster, group or nearly isolated environ-
mentsduetotheirdifferingrelativevelocities,andhowthelarge-scaledynamics
of collisions and interactions induce star formation and nuclear activity, both
before and during mergers. The author also looks at the association of ultra-
luminous infrared galaxies (ULIRGs) with colliding galaxies, and examines to
what degree long-term secular effects are triggered by mergers and feedback.
For some years it has been known that there is a close correlation between
the mass of supermassive black holes (SMBHs) in galaxy nuclei and the ve-
locity dispersion inside the effective radius of the bulge. This suggests a com-
mon formation scenario for galaxies and their central black holes. In Chapter 5,
Franc¸oise Combes discusses the various processes involved in the formation and
evolution of SMBHs, particularly self-regulation and feedback which are key to
this observed correlation. The author also describes a wide range of phenom-
ena including black hole formation in the very early Universe, mini-quasars and
reionisation, intermediate mass black holes, downsizing and lifetime of activity,
andhowmergersofbinarySMBHshelptoheatanddestroycentralstellarcusps.
Brightquasarsappeartogrowrapidlyathighredshiftandtheirnumberdensity
then decreases sharply, while the density of low-luminosity objects peaks more
recently and then decreases smoothly.
The correlation between central black hole mass and velocity dispersion is
pickedupinChapter6,whereMarkLacydiscussesquasarsandtheirhostgalax-
ies. Two major new quasar surveys with tens of thousands of objects have re-
cently appeared and have enabled the quasar luminosity function to be refined.
Estimates of black hole masses have been used to try and improve our physical
understanding of active galactic nuclei, such as in the case of quasar radio emis-
sion. One consequence of the large-scale quasar surveys has been an estimate of
quasar clustering and its evolution with redshift. The number density of very
highredshiftquasarshasalsobeenusedtoestimatetheircontributiontoreioni-
sation. The author also describes significant developments in the study of broad
absorptionlinequasars,advancesinfindingtheobscuredquasarpopulationand
quasar host galaxy studies.
In Chapter 7, Matthias Bartelmann looks at applications of gravitational
lensing in cosmology. Since it appears that the Universe is dominated by dark
matter, gravitational lensing has evolved into one of the most important tools
for learning about the amount, composition and distribution of matter in the
Universe. The author first summarises the theory and basic properties of gravi-
Editor’s Preface VII
tationallensing,andthenappliesthistoisolatedlensessuchascompactobjects,
galaxies and galaxy clusters. Cosmologically important applications of gravita-
tional lensing are described, including searches for MACHOs, time-delay mea-
surementsinmultipleimagesystemswhichprovideestimatesoftheHubbleCon-
stant,andmappingthedarkmatterdistributioningalaxyclusters.Theconcept
of lensing by large-scale structures and its measurement are also introduced.
The techniques used to identify the oldest ”living stars in the Universe are
reviewedbyTimothyBeersinChapter8.Suchstarsareinferredtobelowmass
objects that inherited their observed low metallicities from the earliest gener-
ations of massive (Population III) stars, but with lifetimes so long that they
are still shining today. The author concentrates on the results of two modern
surveys:theHKsurveyandtheHamburg/ESOsurvey.Thedistributionofmea-
sured stellar metallicities derived from these samples and some results of recent
high-resolution spectroscopy of very metal-poor stars are described. Special at-
tention is given to the nature of r-process enhanced metal-poor stars.
Ultraluminous infrared galaxies (ULIRGs) are mergers between gas-rich
galaxies where the interaction triggers a dust-enshrouded starburst and AGN
activity. These fascinating, immensely luminous objects are the focus of the re-
view by Carol Lonsdale, Duncan Farrah and Harding Smith in Chapter 9. In
the past decade, comprehensive multi-wavelength observations of ULIRGs have
shown that instead of being merely local oddities, these objects are vastly more
numerous at high redshift. The authors describe recent progress in understand-
ing the physics and evolution of local ULIRGs, and the contribution of high
redshift ULIRGs to the cosmic infrared background and history of star forma-
tion. They also show how ULIRGs may be used as diagnostics of the formation
of massive galaxies and large-scale structures.
Theroleofgalacticwindsandoutflowsingalaxyformationareconsideredby
CrystalMartininChapter10.Theauthorbeginsbydescribingtheastrophysics
of galaxy formation and the role of processes such as gas cooling and feedback.
The amount of feedback from massive stars is discussed and the hydrodynamics
of supersonic outflows from stellar winds and ensembles of supernovae are ex-
plained.Theauthordemonstrateshowourknowledgeofgalacticwindshasbeen
refined by observations, which have also constrained dynamical models of such
outflows, and the measured properties of galactic outflows are described. The
cosmologicalimpactofgalacticwindsisalsoassessedwithregardtoshapingthe
galaxy luminosity function and dispersing heavy elements into the intergalactic
medium.
Finally, in Chapter 11, Fred Taylor, Isobel Hook and Matthew Colless look
at the exciting prospects for astronomical research which will result from the
constructionofextremelylargetelescopes(ELTs),instrumentshavingapertures
between20mand100m.Theauthorsdescribethemirrortechnologyandoptical
designs required for such large telescopes, their mountings and enclosures, the
selectionofsuitableobservingsitesforthem,theirinstrumentationandthelikely
cost of their construction. They then review the main science drivers for such
telescopes,whichincludethediscoveryandcharacterisationofEarth-likeplanets
aroundotherstars,starformationthroughouttheUniverse,thegrowthofgalax-
VIII Editor’s Preface
ies in the early Universe, and identification of the first objects and reionisation
of the Universe.
Thisbookhasbenefitedfromthesupportandassistanceofalargenumberof
people. I would like to offer my sincere thanks to all of the contributing authors
fortheirconsiderableefforts,perseveranceandenthusiasmforthisproject.Iam
alsomostgratefultoFrankHerwegofSpringer,Heidelbergforhisinvaluableas-
sistanceandadviceinthepreparationoftheLaTeXfilesforthisbook,including
hisworkonmanyoftheillustrationspriortopublication.Finally,Iamindebted
to Sue Peterkin of Praxis Publishing for her very considerable assistance at all
stages in the organization and coordination of this project, and to Clive Hor-
wood, Publisher, for his encouragement, advice and patience throughout.
Barnham, November 2005 John W. Mason
List of Contributors
Matthias Bartelmann Duncan Farrah
Zentrum fu¨r Astronomie der Universit¨at Department of Astronomy
Heidelberg Cornell University
Institut fu¨r Theoretische Astrophysik Space Sciences Building
Albert U¨berle-Str. 2 Ithaca
69120 Heidelberg NY 14853
Germany USA
[email protected] [email protected]
Timothy C Beers Bruce Fegley Jr
Department of Physics and Astron- Planetary Chemistry Laboratory
omy and Joint Institute for Nuclear Department of Earth and Planetary
Astrophysics Sciences
Michigan State University and McDonnell Center for the Space
East Lansing Sciences
MI 48824 Washington University
USA Campus Box 1169
[email protected] St. Louis
MO 63130
Matthew Colless USA
Director [email protected]
Anglo-Australian Observatory
Isobel Hook
P O Box 296
Department of Astrophysics
Epping
University of Oxford
NSW 1710
Keble Road
Australia
Oxford
[email protected]
OX1 3RH
UK
Fran¸coise Combes
[email protected]
Observatoire de Paris
LERMA
John P Hughes
61 Avenue de l’Observatoire
Department of Physics and Astronomy
F- 75014 Paris
Rutgers, The State University of New
France
Jersey
[email protected] 136 Frelinghuysen Road
Piscataway
NJ 08854-8019
USA
[email protected]
X List of Contributors
Mark Lacy Harding E Smith
Spitzer Science Center Center for Astrophysics and Space
California Institute of Technology Science
MS 220-6 University of California San Diego
Pasadena 9500 Gilman Drive
CA 91125 La Jolla
USA CA 92093
[email protected] USA
[email protected]
Katharina Lodders
Tod E Strohmayer
Planetary Chemistry Laboratory
Exploration of the Universe Division
Department of Earth and Planetary
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
Sciences
Greenbelt
and McDonnell Center for the Space
MD 20771
Sciences
USA
Washington University
[email protected]
Campus Box 1169
St. Louis
Curtis Struck
MO 63130
Department of Physics and Astronomy
USA Iowa State University
[email protected] Ames
IA 50011
USA
Carol J Lonsdale
[email protected]
Infrared Processing and Analysis Center
California Institute of Technology
Fred Watson
MS 100-22
Anglo-Australian Observatory
Pasadena
Coonabarabran
CA 91125
NSW 2357
USA
Australia
[email protected]
[email protected]
Crystal L Martin Martin C Weisskopf
Packard Fellow Space Sciences Directorate
Department of Physics NASA Marshall Space Flight Center
University of California, Santa Barbara XD01
Santa Barbara Huntsville
CA 93106 AL 35812
USA USA
[email protected] [email protected]