Table Of ContentASSUMPTIONS IN NINTH-GRADE GENERAL SCIENCE
The determ ination, an aly sis and evaluation of rep resen tativ e
assum ptions associated w ith a group of selected experim ental
e x ercises in ninth-grade general science and a study of how
teachers make provision fo r these assumptions in th e ir teaching.
ELLSWORTH S. OBOURN
Submitted in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of the
requirem ent fo r the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy In the School of Education of
New York U niversity
; Thesis accepted
Hgff
1950
July 20, 1950
1 hereby guarantee that no part of the dissertation
or document which I have submitted for publication has been
heretofore published and (or) copyrighted in the United
States of America, that 1 am the sole author and proprietor
of said-dissertation; that the dissertation contains no
matter which, if published, will be libelous or otherwise
injurious, or infringe in any way the copyright of any
other party; and that I will defend, indemnify and hold
harmless New lork University against a ll suits and pro
ceedings which may be brought and against a ll claims
which may be made against New York University by reason
of the publication of said dissertation or document.
Ellsworth S. Obourn
PREFACE
This investigation is the d irect outgrowth of more than
a quarter of a century of experience in teaching secondary
school science. During th is period there has been a gradual
but steady sh ift of emphasis from science content taught as
an end in its e lf to science content taught as a means to the end
of more complete adjustment of young people to the life problems
of th e ir environment.
This is currently designated as an age of science but
i t is fa r from an age in which people think s c ie n tific a lly .
The habit of straig h t thinking is but undeveloped in the
\
lives of most people. Science teaching is in somewhat of a
preferred position as a subject in the school curriculum to
do something about th is general lack in modern liv in g .
I t is true th at the proolem of th is study is only a
small facet of the to ta l problem of reflec tiv e thinking. But
it is necessarily so because only through intensive studies of
small aspects of the problem may we hope eventually to know
the true nature of the a b ility and more about how to teach for
it in the classroom. The m atter of assumptions seems to be an
important aspect of problem-solving behavior because of the
extent to which the average layman accepts conclusions without
examining the bases upon which they re st.
The investigator has long been concerned with the teach
ing of problem-solving outcomes in the classroom and has made
a few contributions to the lite ra tu re of the f ie ld . Thus this
study cornea as a s o rt of culm ination and outgrowth, of a long
interest in the problem.
The investigator wishes to acknowledge help in th is
investigation from a larg e group o f competent people in* the
area of science teach in g . The l i s t is f a r too larg e to
reproduce here hut th e h elp of each has been acknowl edged by
personal le tter. P a rtic u la r acknowledgement should be given
to the sponsoring committee: D r. J . D arrell Barnard, Dr. L ouis
E. Raths, and Dr. Samuel M cLaughlin. Without th e ir c o n sid e ra te
understanding and counsel th is study would not have been
poss ible.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
P A G E
PREFACE........................................................................................................................... i l
CHAPTERS SUBJECT
I . The Purpose of The Inv estig ation ..................... 1
Problems S tated and Defined 1
Analysis of the P ro b le m . 1
D efin itio n of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
L im itation of The S tu d y ....................................... 4
Assumptions Basic to The In v estig atio n . . . 5
The S ignificance and Purpose of The
I n v e s tig a tio n ......................... 6
Summary ........................................................................................ 12
I I . The Nature And Place of Problem Solving . . . . 14
A. Problem Solving In Present-Day Educational
P ractice . . 14
Significance of Problem Solving in Life
Adjustment . • • • • . . 14
Problem Solving as an Outcome of General
E d u c a tio n ................................................................. 17
Problem Solving as an Outcome of Science
T e a c h i n g ........................................................................................20
B. The Nature of Problem-Solving Behavior . • 26
Problem Solving A Unique Type of Behavior • 26
Problem Solving Is Purposeful Behavior. • • 28
Problem Solving C onsists Of Id e n tifia b le
E le m e n ts • • 29
Problem Solving Is Not E sse n tia lly
P a tte r n e d . • 31
Problem Solving Is In tim ately A ssociated
With A ttitud es ................................................ 33
Assumptions Are An E sse n tia l P a rt Of
Problem Solving • • • • ............................ 35
Problem Solving Behavior Can Be Developed • 39
A nalysis of Problem -Solving Outcome . . . . 42
The Place of Aasumptions In Learning Of
Science • • • • . . . • 48
Summary . . • • • .................................................. 52
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CHAPTERS SUBJECT P A G E
I I I . A Review of The R e la te d L i t e r a t u r e ........................... 54
In v e stig a tio n s of A ssum ptions In R elated
F ie ld s of Study ...................... . . . . . . . 54
Related I n v e s tig a tio n s of Problem S olving
in The Area of Science In stru ctio n . . . 63
S tu d ies R e la te d to s c ie n tif ic A ttitu d e s 64
S tu d ies R e la te d to The Development of
G eneral A b ility in S c ie n tific Method 68
In v estig a tio n s R e la te d To The Development of
S p e c ific A b i l it i e s In Problem Solving • • 69
Summary . ...................................................................... . . 75
IV. Procedures Used In C o lle c tin g And E valuating
The A ssu m p tio n s.....................................................................................77
S electing The Prim ary Sources of Data . . . 7 7
Prelim inary C atalo g in g of Experim ental
E xercises • • • • • ........................................................ 78
The S e le c tio n of The E xperim ental E x e rc ise s. 81
Recording The S e le c te d Experim ental E x er
cises . . . • • • • . 83
Analyzing th e E x perim en tal E xercises To
S elect A s s u m p t i o n s ........................................................84
The C o n sid e ratio n of a T ypical E xperim ental
E x e r c i s e .............................................................................................86
The S e le c tio n o f J u r i e s .........................................................89
The Assignm ent o f P erso n al to Jury Groups . • 92
The Assignm ent of E xperim ental E xercises
to Ju ry G r o u p s ..................................................................93
The C o lle c tio n of Data Promt he Ju rie s . . . 95
Summary........................................................................ 96
V. Procedures Used In O rganizing And T reatin g Data
Related To The S e le c tio n of Assumptions . . . 98
Returns On Data Check S h e e t s ............................... . 98
The T ab u latio n o f The D a t a .................................... • 99
Determ ining The In d ice s of Agreement of
J u r i e s ...........................................................................................100
O rganizing th e Assum ptions Into C ategories • 101
C lassify in g The E xperim ental E xercises
Into T y p e s ..................................................................... 106
The C o n sid e ratio n of a T ypical E xperim ental
E xercise . . . . . . . .......................................... 109
R elating th e C ate g o rie s of Assumptions To
The Types of E xperim ental E xercises . . . 112
Checking th e Added Assumptions For The
E xperim ental E x e r c i s e s ..........................................115
Determ ining The R e l i a b i l i t y of Checking of
The O rig in a l J u rie s ............................................... 118
Summary.........................................................................................121
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CHAPTERS SUBJECT PAGE
VI. The A nalysis And in te rp re ta tio n of Data Related
To The S electio n of A ssu m p tio n s................................ 123
The Mean Index of Agreement fo r Various
C ategories of A ssu m p tio n s..................................... 12o
The Ind ices of Agreement of Each Jury And
The Combined In d ices of Agreement For The
Various C ategories of Assumptions . . . . 124
An A nalysis of the L ogical P a tte rn of The
Experim ental E xercises and I t s R elationship
To The C ategories of Assumptions...................... 131
An A nalysis of Experim ental E xercises With
Extreme Mean Indices of Agreement For The
A ssociated Assumptions ............................................. 143
An A nalysis of the Fact - Non-fact p a tte rn Of
The Various C ategories of Assumptions . . 144
An A nalysis of The Added Assumptions. . . . 154
Summary.................................................... 157
V II. Procedures Used In studying The Ways In Which
Teachers Provide For Assumptions In Their
Teaching......................................................................................... 159
Prelim inary Data R elated To This Part of
The S t u d y .......................................................................... 159
General purpose and Plan fo r O btaining Evi
dence by O bservation on the Provisions
Teachers Make fo r A ssu m p tio n s...................... 150
Plans fo r securing O bservational Data of
Classroom P ractice . . . 163
The P rep aratio n of the Manual fo r O bservers. 164
M aterials Sent to Cooperating C enters. . . . 165
Summary.................................................................................... 167
V III. The A nalysis and In te rp re ta tio n of Data
Obtained From Classroom O bservations of
Teaching fo r Assum ptions............................................. 168
A nalysis of Raw D ata.................................................. 168
Comparison of Experim ental E xercises Observed
With Those se le c te d fo r Study In P art I . 172
Comparison of Assumptions Id e n tifie d In
Observed Experim ental E xercises With Assump
tio n s Id e n tifie d in P art 1 ..............................................176
An A nalysis of the Data In Terms of The
Extent to Which Teachers in D ifferen t
S itu atio n s Make Provision fo r Assumptions. 180
R eevaluation of The Data in Terms of The
Extent To Which Teachers Make P rovision
For Assumptions in T heir Teaching. . . . . 185
A Study of The Extent To Which Teachers Who
Made pro v isio n fo r Other Aspects of Problem
Solving Also Made provision fo r Assumptions 188
Ways in Which Teachers Provide fo r Assumptionsl92
An A nalysis of the Data In Terms of E xperi
m ental Technique........................................................................193
Summary.....................................................................................................195
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chapter subject page
IX. Summary And F in d in g s......................................................... 197
X. Conclusions And Recommendations.......................................... 208
B ibliography.................................................................................................... 21b
Appendix A ........................................................................................ 202
Appendix B ..................................................•>.................................................... 845
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TABLES
NUMBER TITLE PAGE
I Per Cent o f Check Sheets Returned from Jury A. . . 98
II Per Cent o f Check Sheets Returned from Jury B. • • 98
III Per Cent o f Check Sheets Returned from Jury C* • • 99
IV Number and Peir Cent of Assumptions in Each Category
Related to the D ifferent Types of Experimental
E x e r c ise s......................................................• .................................... III4.
V Consistency of Agreement of Each Juror on Assump
tions in Three Experimental Exercises ............................ 119
VI The Agreement of Each Juror on the Assumptions in
Each o f the lhree E xercises Checked . . . . . . . 120
VII The Mean Index of Agreement for Each of the Cate
gories of Assumptions 123
VIII Mean Index of Agreement by Jury for the Various
Categories of Assumptions . . . . . . 125
IX Numbers and Per Cent o f Assumptions by Category
Where Juries Showed a Tendency to Agree as Often
as to Disagree . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
X Average D ifferences of Indices of Agreement of
Juries for A ll Categories of Assumptions • • • • • 127
XI Assumptions by Category With Indices of Agreement
Above 90 and Below $0 . , • • . . . . . . . . . . 128
XII Percentage of Assumptions Upon Which There Was
Complete Jury Agreement Arranged by Categories . . 129
XIII Mean Index of Agreement for Assumptions A ssociated
With the D ifferent Types o f Experimental Exercises 13*+
XIV The Index of Agreement and D istribution of Assump
tions For Experimental E xercises In Which Conclusions
Were D escriptive • • • . . . 156
XV The Index of Agreement and D istribution of Assumptions
For Experimental Exercises Where Conclusions Are
C losely A ssociated by Logical Pattern With the Stated
P urpose.................................................................................................... 139
XVI The Index of Agreement and D istribution of Assump
tions for Experimental E xercises Having Clearly
Stated D irections .................................. ll+2
TABLES
NUMBER title p A g- e
XVII Factual and N on-F actual Assumptions Arranged
by C a te g o ry ...........................................................................................................146
XVIII Factual and N on-F actual Assumpt ions Among the
Original and Added Groups Arranged hy C ategory. . . 148
XIX Mean Indices of Agreement of Juries on F actu al
and Non-Factual Assum ptions Arranged by C ategory. • 150
XX Deviations From the Mean Index of Agreement fo r
Assumptions in A ll E xperim ental Exercises A rranged
by Jury ...........................................................................................................153
XXI Factual and N on-Factual Assumptions Added by J u rie s
Arranged by C ategory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
XXII The Extent to Which Members of Jury C Provide fo r
the L ist of O rig in a l Assumptions in th e ir T eaching. 160
XXIII D istribution of Classroom Observations According
to Type of C om m unity......................................... 171
XXIV D istribution of Classroom Observations According
to Types of School O rg an izatio n ........................... 172
XXV Per Cent of Observed Experim ental E xercise In
Units of G eneral scien ce Studied in P art I . . , . 173
XXVI Per Cent of Observed Experim ental E xercises Which
Were Sim ilar to the O rig in a l Group of E xperim ental
Exercises, A rranged by U n i t s ................................................... 174
XXVII Per Cent of O rig in a l and Observed Experim ental
Exercises Arranged A ccording to Type . . . . . . . 176
XXVIII Number and Per Cent of O rig in a l and Observed
Assumptions A ssigned to Each Category. . . . . . . 178
XXIX Original and Observed Assumptions C lassifie d As
Factual and N on-F actual .................................... 179
XXX Comparison of the E x ten t to Which Teachers In
Various Types of Communities Made P rovision f o r
A ssum ptions................................................................................................ 181
XXXI Gomprison of the E xtent to Yi/hich Teachers in
Schools of V arious S izes Malce Provision fo r Assump
tions ............................................................................................................... 183
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