Association of dominant somatotype of men with body structure, function during exercise, and ...

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AMERICANJOURNALOFHUMANBIOLOGY12:167–180(2000)
Association of Dominant Somatotype of Men With Body
Structure, Function During Exercise, and
Nutritional Assessment
WILLIAMW.BOLONCHUK,1,2WILLIAMA.SIDERS,1
GLENNI.LYKKEN,1,3ANDHENRYC.LUKASKI1*
1UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture,AgricultureResearchService,
GrandForksHumanNutritionResearchCenter,
GrandForks,NorthDakota
2DepartmentofHealth,PhysicalEducationandRecreation,Universityof
NorthDakota,GrandForks,NorthDakota
3DepartmentofPhysics,UniversityofNorthDakota,
GrandForks,NorthDakota
ABSTRACT Thisstudyexaminedthehypothesisthatsomatotypedeter-
minesbodystructure,functionalresponsesatpeakexercise,andnutritional
status of 63 men ages 18–40 years who lived under controlled conditions.
Dataweregroupedbydominantsomatotypetoemphasizedifferencesinbody
types. Dominant ectomorphs (n 4 19) had less (P < 0.05) body weight, fat
weight,andpercentbodyfatthanendomorphs(n414)andmesomorphs(n
4 30). Fat-free weight (FFW), total body potassium (TBK), and body cell
mass(BCM),normalizedforstature,werelower(P<0.05)intheectomorphs
than in the endomorphs and mesomorphs. Comparisons between measured
andpredictedFFWandTBKshowedthatonlytheectomorphshadless(P<
0.05) FFW and TBK than expected. Although all groups had the same peak
poweroutput,theectomorphshaddifferentfunctionalresponsesduringpeak
exercise.Ectomorphshadthegreatestrespiratoryexchangeratio(P<0.05),
ventilatory equivalent for oxygen, and end-exercise plasma lactate concen-
trations(P<0.05),andlowestpeakoxygenuptake(L/min;P<0.05).Nutrient
intakesandbloodbiochemicalmarkersofnutritionalstatuswerewithinthe
rangeofnormalvaluesinallgroups.Correlationsbetweenmeasuresofbody
structure,function,andnutritionalstatusanddominantsomatotypecompo-
nentswerecalculatedaftercontrollingfortheeffectsoftheothertwosomato-
type components. Partial correlations were variable, with significant corre-
lations ranging from −0.30 to 0.87. These data indicate that ectomorphs, as
compared to endomorphs and mesomorphs, have deficits in FFW and BCM
which are associated with differences in functional capacity. Am. J. Hum.
Biol. 12:167–180, 2000. ©2000Wiley-Liss,Inc.†
Humanswithdifferentsomatotypesdem- U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,AgriculturalResearchSer-
onstrate unique performance capacities vice,NorthernPlainsArea,isanequalopportunity/affirmative
actionemployer,andallagencyservicesareavailablewithout
during exercise and physical training (Coz-
discrimination.
ens, 1930; Cureton, 1941; Sills, 1950; Sills Mentionofatrademarkorproprietaryproductdoesnotcon-
andMichem,1957;Tanneretal.,1960).An- stituteaguaranteeorwarrantybytheU.S.DepartmentofAg-
riculture and does not imply its approval to the exclusion of
thropological studies of Olympic athletes
otherproductsthatmaybeavailable.
consistently show that individuals compet- *Correspondenceto:HenryC.Lukaski,USDA,ARS,GFHNRC,
ing in the same athletic event have similar Box9034,GrandForks,ND58202-9034.
E-mail:[email protected]
somatotypes regardless of their geographi-
Received21August1998;Revisionreceived27January1999;
cal, cultural, or economic backgrounds, Accepted3February1999
©2000Wiley-Liss,Inc. †ThisarticleisaUSGovernmentwork
and, as such, is in the public domain in the United States of
America.
PROD #M98084R
168 W.W.BOLONCHUKETAL.
whereas athletes participating in different Allard and Goulet (1968) also reported in-
athletic activities have different somato- creasedserumcholesterolconcentrationsas
types (Carter, 1970, 1984; de Garay et al., afunctionofbodybuild,classifiedbyheight
1974).Thesestudiescharacterizedthetypi- and weight. Although these studies catego-
calsomatotypeassociatedwithperformance rize one measure of nutritional status ac-
in specific athletic events and concluded cording to body type, they failed to include
that significantly different somatotypes anassessmentofdietintheassociationbe-
were associated with each event. tween somatotype and serum cholesterol.
Sheldon et al.’s (1940) procedure for de- There are limited data evaluating differ-
termining the somatotype of an individual ences in functional responses to exercise in
did not require body measurements, al- relation to somatotype. Schreiber (1973)
thoughmeasurementsfromcadaverstudies found that ectomorphs, as compared to en-
domorphs and mesomorphs, demonstrated
were used to establish morphological char-
an increased dependence on glycolytic me-
acteristics. But subsequently developed
tabolism during a standardized test of an-
methodstomoreobjectivelyestimatetheso-
aerobic function. No physiological explana-
matotype of an individual (Parnell, 1958;
tion for this finding was provided.
HeathandCarter,1967)utilizedbodymea-
This study examines the association be-
surements and many of those measure-
tween body structure and functional re-
ments were similar to measurements uti-
sponseatpeakexerciseandtheconcomitant
lized to anthropometrically determine body
roleofnutritioninmalesexhibitingsomato-
composition. It is not surprising, then, that
typedominance.Wereportthatectomorphs
manystudieshaveattemptedtorelatebody
exhibit different metabolic responses at
compositionvariablesandsomatotype(Tan-
peakpowerandthatthesedifferencesinre-
neretal.,1960;Bulbulian,1984;Slaughter
sponse may be explained by deficits in fat-
and Lohman, 1976; Dupertius et al., 1951;
free weight (FFW) and body cell mass
Bolonchuketal.,1989).Thesestudieshave
(BCM).
found that, on average, endomorphs were
heavier,taller,andfatterthanmesomorphs METHODS
or ectomorphs, that mesomorphs had
greater fat-free weights and were shorter Subjects
than endomorphs or ectomorphs, and that Eighty-five men, ages 18–40 years, who
ectomorphs had less fat and lower body hadbeenrecruitedforparticipationinstud-
weights than mesomorphs or endomorphs. ies to determine mineral nutrient require-
Thus, these findings suggest a general as- mentsattheUSDA,ARSGrandForksHu-
sociation between body structure and so- man Nutrition Research Center, partici-
matotype and infer that performance is de- pated in this study. The studies were
pendent on somatotype. However, because approvedbytheInstitutionalReviewBoard
performance is an indirect measure of of the University of North Dakota and the
physiological function, an association be- Human Studies Review Committee of the
tween somatotype and function has only U.S. Department of Agriculture. The re-
been implied, not demonstrated. Further- search subjects gave written consent after
more, it is well established that diet and receiving written and oral explanations of
mineralnutritureinfluencephysicalperfor- the purpose and procedures of the study.
mance (Lukaski et al., 1996). Few studies Inclusionofthedatainthepresentstudy
have explored the interactions between was dependent on somatotype dominance.
body structure, physiological function at Only those subjects (n 4 63; age 4 28.5
peak exercise, and nutritional status. years±0.96,mean±SE)whodemonstrated
There is evidence of an association be- somatotype dominance, defined as a so-
tweenphysiqueandnutritionalstatus.Tan- matotype component rating at least 0.5
ner et al. (1960) and Gordon et al. (1987) points higher than either of the other two
demonstrated a relationship between total component ratings, were selected. This cri-
serum cholesterol and somatotype. Both terion eliminated all subjects with equal
studies revealed that endomorphs had the ratings for the highest somatotype compo-
highest, whereas ectomorphs had the low- nent. The mean ages for the dominant en-
est, serum cholesterol concentrations; men, domorphs, mesomorphs, and ectomorphs
but not women, exhibited this relationship. was 28.9 ± 1.4, 29.4 ± 1.8, and 26.7 ± 1.1
STRUCTURE,FUNCTION,ANDNUTRITIONWITHEXERCISE 169
fectoftheself-selecteddietaryintakeofthe
volunteers.
Bodystructure
Somatotype by anthropometry was com-
puted according to the procedure of Carter
(1975) and endomorphy was corrected for
standing height (Carter and Heath, 1990).
The Holtain skinfold caliper, Harpenden
anthropometer, and a Toledo scale (Model
2831) were the test instruments and a
trained anthropometrist administered all
tests. The technical errors of the anthropo-
metric measurement (<0.2 somatotype
units) were only a fraction of the sample
variance, coefficents of variation ranged
from 3–7% and intraclass correlations for
repeated measurements were greater than
0.98.
Total body potassium (TBK), which is
found almost exclusively in the fat-free
body, was determined by counting the
gamma ray emissions from 40K in the body
byusingsodiumiodidedetectorsinawhole
body counter with the methods and proce-
duresdescribedbyLykkenetal.(1980).The
precision of this method was 2%. Body cell
mass (BCM) was calculated from determi-
nationsofTBKbyusingtheformula(Moore
et al., 1963): BCM 4 TBK ? (0.00833) in
which BCM is in kg and TBK is in milli-
Fig. 1. Distribution of somatotypes. The upper so- equivalents. This approach assumes that
matochartrepresentsthedistributionforthesampleof the predominance (>97%) of TBK is located
n463whilethelowersomatochartdepictsthemean
in muscle and viscera, with only minimal
somatotypes, and standard dispersion index, of the
threedominantsomatotypegroups. amounts (<3%) in bone, collagen, and adi-
pose tissue (Moore et al., 1963).
Body density was determined by hy-
years, respectively. The upper somatochart
drodensitometry with a system similar to
in Figure 1 depicts the dispersion of indi-
thatdescribedbyAkersandBuskirk(1969).
vidual volunteers, while the lower somato-
Measurement variability was less than 1%
chart shows the mean somatotype for each
for body fat (Mendez and Lukaski, 1981).
of the dominant somatotype groups; the
Residuallungvolumewasmeasuredsimul-
circle around each mean represents the so-
taneouslywiththeunderwaterweighingby
matotype dispersion index (SDI) for that
anopencircuittechniquefornitrogenwash-
group.TheSDIisthemeanoftheindividual
out of the lungs (Darling et al., 1940). Per-
somatotype distances from the mean so-
centbodyfatwasestimatedfrombodyden-
matotype (Carter, 1975).
sityasdescribedbyBrozeketal.(1963).Fat
weightwascomputedastheproductofper-
Procedures
cent fat and body weight. FFW was com-
The anthropometric, compositional, bio- puted as the difference between fat weight
chemical, and physiological measurements and body weight.
werecollectedinthefirst2weeksofanini- Because standing height is a significant
tialcontrolperiodduringwhichthedietpro- predictor of FFW, and somatotype ratings
vided nutrients in amounts consistent with are influenced by standing height, differ-
optimal function and health (NRC, 1989). encesinFFWandTBKamongdominantso-
All tests were administered as early in the matotypeswereevaluatednotonlyinabso-
controlperiodaspossibletooptimizetheef- lutetermsbutalsoincomparisontopredic-
170 W.W.BOLONCHUKETAL.
tionsbasedonnonathleticpopulations.This thedeterminationofplasmalactateconcen-
approach attempts to discriminate differ- trations according to the method of Henry
encesintheenergy-producingcomponentof (1964).
thebodybyusingpredictionmodelsforTBK
Nutritionalstatusassessment
(TBK ) and FFW (FFW ):
E S
Nutrientintakeswereestimatedbyuseof
TBK 4 (5.52 ? 0.014 A) X (W)0.5 ? (S)2 self-reported,7-daydietaryrecallrecordsof
E
food and beverage consumption before en-
in which TBK is in grams, A is age in tering the metabolic unit studies. The re-
E
years,Wisbodyweightinkilograms,andS cords were reviewed and interviews were
is standing height in meters (Ellis et al., conducted with an experienced dietician to
1974); and, clarify items and quantities that may have
beenunclear.Thedietaryrecordswereana-
FFW 4 0.00199 (S)2 + 1.67 lyzed for nutrient intake values by the
S
methodsdescribedbyLukaskietal.(1990).
in which FFW is in kilograms and S is A fasting sample of whole blood was ob-
S
standing height in meters (Slaughter and tained from an antecubital vein during the
Christ, 1995). firstweekofthecontrolperiodandanalyzed
to yield estimates of nutritional status. He-
Functionduringexercise
matocrit, hemoglobin, plasma copper (Cu),
The physical work capacity (PWC) of the iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), and zinc ( Zn),
men was measured during a progressive, plasma total cholesterol (TCHOL), high-
continuous,maximalexercisetestonacycle density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, low-
ergometer (Monark 868; Varberg, Sweden). density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, very-
The PWC protocol required a pedaling rate low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) cholesterol,
of 50 rpm beginning at a resistance of 1.0 triglyceride (TG), and ferritin concentra-
kilopond (kp). Pedaling resistance was in- tions,totalironbindingcapacity(TIBC),ce-
creased by 1.0 kp after each 3 min of exer- ruloplasmin, and superoxide dismutase
cise.Allsubjectspedaledtovoluntarymaxi- (SOD) were the nutritional variables se-
mum. Tests were administered between lected for this study.
6:00 and 8:00 am and before breakfast. Hematocrit and hemoglobin were mea-
Exhaled gas was analyzed continuously sured with a Coulter Model S+4 (Coulter
for oxygen and carbon dioxide concentra- Electronics, Hialeah, FL). Plasma metals
tions, expired volume, and other selected and TIBC were analyzed by the atomic ab-
variables of pulmonary function. Measure- sorptionspectroscopymethodsofFernandez
ments were recorded at 60-sec intervals for and Kahn (1971). Analyses of serum ferri-
5 min of pre-exercise and during each tin, an iron-containing protein which is the
minuteofexercise.TheBeckmanMetabolic primary storage compound by which iron
Measurement Cart (MMC), as described is mobilized to the transferrin-bound
byWilmoreetal.(1976),ortheMMCHori- plasmapool,wereperformedbyaprocedure
zon (Anaheim, CA) were the test instru- whichutilizedacompetitivedoublebinding
ments; subjects were randomly assigned to assay (Abbott Laboratories, Abbott Park,
oneinstrumentforallphysicalworkcapac- IL). Ceruloplasmin, the principal copper-
ity tests. Both instruments were calibrated containingproteinintheplasma,wasdeter-
before each test by analysis of a certified minedbyacolormetriccopperoxidasereac-
reference gas. The volume measurement tion (Sunderman and Nomoto, 1970). SOD
was calibrated by a syringe with a known wasassayedinredbloodcellsbythemethod
volume. Test-retest reproducibility was described by Winterbourn et al. (1975). Se-
within 5%. rum cholesterol was measured enzymati-
The electrocardiogram and heart rate cally(CobasFara,Nutley,NJ)andtheLDL
were monitored with a Quinton electrocar- and VLDL fractions were determined ac-
diograph monitoring system (Model 630A; cording to the procedures described by
Quinton Instruments Co., Seattle, WA) us- Friedwald et al. (1972).
ing a bipolar CM ECG lead.
5 Statistics
A sample of whole blood was obtained
from an antecubital vein before and at the Asomatochartwasdevelopedtoshowthe
end of each physical work capacity test for dispersionofthesomatotypes(Fig.1).Three
STRUCTURE,FUNCTION,ANDNUTRITIONWITHEXERCISE 171
TABLE1.Anthropometricdimensions(mean±standarderror)ofthesubjects
Endomorphs Mesomorphs Ectomorphs
n414 n430 n419 n463
Skinfolds,mm
triceps 11.9b±1.20 9.3b±0.76 6.9a±0.76 9.1±0.55
subscapular 17.0c±1.64 12.0b±0.97 7.7a±0.37 12.0±0.75
suprailiac 19.1c±1.60 8.1b±0.96 6.5a±0.62 10.1±0.86
sumofthree 48.9c±3.69 29.3b±2.47 21.1a±1.37 31.2±1.95
Height,cm 182.2b±1.95 174.8a±1.23 180.5b±1.65 178.1±0.97
Humeruswidth,cm 6.6±0.16 6.7±0.09 6.5±0.07 6.6±0.06
Femurwidth,cm 9.5±0.14 9.2±0.12 9.0±0.14 9.2±0.08
Circumferences,cm
biceps 30.3b±0.52 31.2b±0.60 27.4a±0.35 29.8±0.38
calf 37.5b±0.61 36.0b±0.61 33.2a±0.52 35.5±0.41
Weight,kg 87.7b±2.3 78.0b±2.9 67.3a±1.8 76.9±1.80
Ponderalindex* 41.1a±0.42 41.1a±0.35 44.5b±0.19 42.1±0.28
*Ponderalindex4height,cm/(bodyweight,kg)0.33
a,b,cDifferentsuperscriptsindicatestatisticallydifferent(P<0.05)meansamongdominantsomatotypes.
distinct groups emerged with 14 dominant nant somatotype group. Skinfold measure-
endomorphs, 30 dominant mesomorphs, mentsdifferedsignificantlybydominantso-
and 19 dominant ectomorphs. The data matotype except for the triceps measure-
were grouped by dominant somatotype and ment, which was not different between
descriptive statistics were expressed as endomorphs and mesomorphs. Dominant
mean±SE.Thehypothesisthatsomatotype endomorphs and ectomorphs were signifi-
impacted structural, functional, and nutri- cantly taller than mesomorphs. Girth mea-
tional variables was tested for significance surements and body weights were signifi-
at the a 4 0.05 level by using one-way cantly greater for dominant endomorphs
analysis of variance. In the presence of a and mesomorphs than for ectomorphs. Hu-
significant main effect, Tukey’s contrasts merus and femur widths were not signifi-
(SAS, 1997) were used post-hoc to compare cantly different by dominant somatotype.
means for each variable. Differences be- The Ponderal Index was significantly
tween measured and predicted TBK and
higher, and the body mass index (BMI)
FFW were evaluated for significant (P <
(Table 2) was significantly lower, for domi-
0.05)differencesfrom0byusingthepaired
nant ectomorphs than for endomorphs and
t-test (SAS Institute, Cary, NC).
mesomorphs.
Because the somatotype of an individual
The value for the somatotype component
reflects a composite estimate of physique,
that represented the dominant somatotype
we also used partial correlation coefficients
was statistically greater than the value for
(Kleinbaum and Kupper, 1978) to discern
theothercomponentsofsomatotypeineach
associations between a specific somatotype
dominant somatotype group (Table 2). This
componentandvariousdependentvariables
finding indicates clear dominance for each
(body structure, functional measures, and
of the three somatotype groups (Fig. 1).
nutrition variables) after statistically ad-
Threemenwereratedasextremeendomor-
justingfortheothertwosomatotypecompo-
phicmesomorphsandonemanwasratedas
nents (SAS, 1997). Thus, the reported par-
an extreme mesomorphic endomorph. Body
tial correlation coefficients describe rela-
composition components also differed sig-
tionships between the residual scores of
each somatotype component and the indi- nificantlyasafunctionofsomatotypedomi-
vidualcompositional,functional,andnutri- nance(Table2).Dominantendomorphshad
tionalvariablesaftertheeffectsoftheother morefat,FFW,andBCMthanectomorphs.
two somatotype components were statisti- DominantmesomorphshadmoreFFWthan
cally removed. ectomorphs. Dominant ectomorphs had the
least FFW and BCM.
RESULTS Because standing height is highly corre-
lated with FFW and TBK or BCM, and
Bodystructure
theserelationshipsarenotlinear,weexam-
Theanthropometricdimensions(Table1) ined the influence of somatotype on these
showed a unique description for each domi- componentsofbodycompositionbycompar-
172 W.W.BOLONCHUKETAL.
TABLE2.Somatotyperatingsandbodycomposition(mean±standarderror)ofthesubjects
Endomorphs Mesomorphs Ectomorphs n463
Endomorphy 4.8c±0.33 2.9b±0.24 2.1a±0.15 3.1±0.19
Mesomorphy 3.7b±0.34 4.6c±0.23 2.3a±0.16 3.7±0.19
Ectomorphy 1.7a±0.21 1.8a±0.17 3.9b±0.14 2.4±0.16
BMI,kg/m2 26.4b±0.7 25.5b±0.8 20.6a±0.3 24.2±0.5
Fat-freeweight,kg 63.9b±1.8 62.0b±1.9 56.5a±1.5 60.4±1.1
Fatweight,kg 20.8b±2.2 14.6a,b±1.2 9.4a±0.6 13.8±0.8
Bodyfat,% 24.4b±2.0 17.8a,b±0.9 14.0a±0.8 17.5±1.1
Totalbodypotassium,g 155a±24 144b±16 127a±18 138±22
Bodycellmass,kg 33.2b±5.2 31.2b±3.5 27.1a±3.0 29.5±4.6
Bodycellmass,g/cm 0.18b±0.01 0.18b±0.01 0.15a±0.01 0.16±0.01
a,b,cDifferentsuperscriptsindicatestatisticallydifferent(P<0.05)meansamongdominantsomatotypes.
ing measured and predicted values. Domi-
nant somatotype impacted the measured
andpredictedFFWdatadifferently(Fig.2).
Dominant endomorphs and mesomorphs
hadsimilarFFWvaluesmeasuredwithhy-
drodensitometry which were significantly
greater than values observed in the ecto-
morphs. In contrast, predicted FFW values
were greater than observed values in the
dominant endomorphs and ectomorphs, as
compared to the mesomorphs. The differ-
encebetweenmeasuredandpredictedFFW
values were significantly different than 0
onlyinthedominantectomorphs.Measured
TBK values were less than predicted in all
three dominant somatotype groups of
healthy adults (Ellis et al., 1974) but only
significantly different in the ectomorphs
(Fig. 3).
Functionatpeakexercise
All groups produced statistically similar
peak power output, ventilatory rate, heart
rate, and gross peak carbon dioxide output
and oxygen uptake (Table 3). Peak oxygen
Fig.2. Comparisonofdensitometricallydetermined
consumption, normalized for body weight,
(filled bars) and predicted (open bars; Slaughter and
in the dominant ectomorphs was signifi- Christ,1995)fat-freeweightinupperpanelanddiffer-
cantlygreaterthanintheendomorphs,but encesbetweenpredictedandmeasuredfat-freeweight
similar to that in the mesomorphs during inmenwithdominantsomatotypes.Asterisksindicate
significant (P < 0.05) differences from 0. Values are
the physical work capacity test (Table 3).
mean±SE.
The dominant ectomorphs also had the
greatest respiratory exchange ratio (RER)
atpeakexercise.Thedominantendomorphs exercise blood lactate concentration was
had lower mean oxygen consumption per similar among the somatotype groups but
unit body weight and lower mean RER at end-exercise lactate concentration was sig-
peak exercise than the ectomorphs; neither nificantly greater in the ectomorphs than
were significantly different than the values the other somatotypes.
obtained from the mesomorphs. The domi-
Nutritionalstatusassessment
nant ectomorphs had an increased ventila-
toryequivalentforoxygen(V /VO )overen- Blood biochemical indices of iron, zinc,
E 2
domorphsandectomorphsandaventilatory andmagnesiumnutritionalstatuswerenot
equivalent for carbon dioxide (V /VCO ) affected by dominant somatotype (Table 4).
E 2
greater than mesomorphs but similar to Dominantendomorphshadsignificantlyre-
that measured in the endomorphs. Pre- duced copper status as measured by de-
STRUCTURE,FUNCTION,ANDNUTRITIONWITHEXERCISE 173
endomorphs and ectomorphs were lower
than the recommended amount of intake.
Iron intakes did not differ significantly
among the dominant somatotypes and, on
average, iron intakes exceeded recommen-
dations for the U.S. male population.
Somatotypeandbodystructure,function,
andnutritionalvariables
Dominant somatotype, statistically ad-
justedforthecontributionsoftheothertwo
somatotype components, was significantly
relatedtosomemeasuresofbodystructure,
physiologicalresponsestoexercise,andnu-
tritional status indicators (Table 6). The
magnitude of the correlation coefficients,
however, was variable, with numerous sig-
nificant relationships identified. Endomor-
phy was directly related to all measures of
body habitus and composition. In contrast,
ectomorphy was inversely related to most
determinations of body size and composi-
tion,exceptstatureandFFW.Mesomorphy
was significantly correlated only with BMI.
Fig. 3. Comparison of measured (filled bars) and
Certain somatotypes were significantly
predicted (Ellis et al., 1974) total body potassium in
upper panel and differences between predicted and related to some cardiorespiratory and car-
measuredtotalbodypotassiuminmenwithdominant diovascular responses during peak exercise
somatotypes. Asterisks indicate significant (P < 0.05) (Table 6). Endomorphy was positively re-
differencesfrom0.Valuesaremean±SE.
lated to the ventilatory equivalent for car-
bon dioxide. Mesomorphy, however, was
positively associated with peak power, rate
creased superoxide dismutase and cerulo-
of ventilation, and oxygen uptake. Simi-
plasmin,twocopper-containingproteins,as
larly, ectomorphy was positively correlated
compared to mesomorphs and ectomorphs.
withpoweroutput,ventilatoryrate,oxygen
Body type impacted some measurements
consumption, heart rate, and ventilatory
of circulating lipid concentrations. Total
equivalents for oxygen and carbon dioxide.
plasma cholesterol concentrations were
Lactateaccumulationduringexercise,how-
similar among the groups. Dominant endo-
ever, was positively related to ectomorphy.
morphs had significantly lower HDL-
Somatotype was also correlated signifi-
cholesterol than compared to the meso-
cantly with some nutritional status indica-
morphs and ectomorphs; they also had the
tors. In general, all somatotypes were very
highest TG, LDL-, and VLDL-cholesterol
stronglycorrelatedwithceruloplasmin(r$
concentrations, although the differences
0.75)andplasmamagnesium(r$0.33).En-
were not statistically significant.
domorphywascorrelatedwithcoppermark-
Dietaryintake ers (directly with plasma copper but in-
versely with SOD activity). Mesomorphy
Energy and macronutrient (protein, fat, was positively related to plasma zinc and
and carbohydrate) intakes (Table 5) were serumferritin,butnegativelywithhemato-
statistically similar among dominant so- crit.Ectomorphywaspositivelyrelatedwith
matotype groups. The dominant endo- plasma zinc.
morphs had significantly lower copper and Somatotype was significantly associated
magnesium intakes; these values were at with circulating lipid and lipoprotein con-
the low end of the recommended amount of centrations(Table6).Allsomatotypeswere
intakes.Whilezincintakeswerenotsignifi- positively correlated with total cholesterol,
cantly different among the dominant so- triglycerides, LDL-, and VLDL-cholesterol
matotypes, the mean intakes by dominant fractions. The HDL fraction was inversely
174 W.W.BOLONCHUKETAL.
TABLE3.Function(mean±standarderror)atpeakergocycleexercisebydominantsomatotypecomponent
Endomorphs Mesomorphs Ectomorphs
Peakpower,W 202±11 210±7 209±9
V.E,L/min 110±11 101±10 108±6
V.O2,mL/kg/min 34.2a±3 39.2a,b±2 41.6b±2
VO ,mL/min 2,989±227 2,999±121 2,827±165
2
VCO ,mL/min 3,249±268 3,414±131 3,300±196
2
RER 1.09a±0.02 1.11a±0.02 1.17b±0.03
Heartrate,bpm 179±6 180±4 184±2
V /VO 34.8a±1.4 33.5a±0.9 38.4b±1.3
E 2
V /VCO 33.2b±1.4 29.3a±0.6 32.9b±1.2
E 2
Bloodlactate,mM/L
Pre-exercise 0.6±0.07 0.7±0.05 0.7±0.05
Peakexercise 4.8a±0.7 5.9a±0.3 6.6b±0.3
a,bDifferentsuperscriptsindicatestatisticallydifferent(P<0.05)meansamongdominantsomatotypes.
TABLE4.Nutritionalassessment(mean±standarderror)bydominantsomatotypecomponent
Endomorphs Mesomorphs Ectomorphs Rangeofnormalvalues*
Hematocrit,% 45.4±0.6 45.2±0.6 44.8±0.7 37–52
Hemoglobin,g/L 155±22 157±30 154±31 120–180
PlasmaCu,mg/dL 91a±6.2 78b±2.2 82a,b±3.1 70–140
PlasmaMg,mg/dL 1.70±0.03 1.73±0.05 1.80±0.04 1.6–3.0
PlasmaZn,mg/dL 88±2.9 85±1.8 88±2.7 65–115
PlasmaFe,mg/dL 122±7.1 116±5.9 124±9.6 50–150
Ferritin,mg/L 51.0±10.7 93.0±11.2 80.0±18.5 36–255
TIBC,mg/dL 301±13.8 281±9.2 285±10.5 250–500
Ceruloplasmin,mg/dL 29.8a±0.5 35.1b±3.1 34.2b±2.1
SOD,U 2,654a±102 3,298b±127 3,479b±192 2,500–3,500
TCHOL,mg/dL 179±10 169±6 175±8 <220
Triglycerides,mg/dL 111±10 97±8 91±8 40–197
HDL,mg/dL 40.3a±4.2 49.7b±2.4 56.8b±3.2 29–80
LDL,mg/dL 117±10 101±6 100±7
VLDL,mg/dL 22.3±2.8 19.0±1.6 18±1.6
*ReferencedatafromGrandForksHumanNutritionResearchCenter.
a,bDifferentsuperscriptsindicatedifferent(P<0.05)meansamongdominantsomatotypes.
TABLE5.Meandailydietaryintake(mean±standarderror)bydominantsomatotypecomponent
Endomorphs Mesomorphs Ectomorphs RDAorESADD1*
Energy,kcal 2,866±356 3,391±287 2,828±258
Protein,g 115±11.2 123±13.2 117±13.8
Fat,g 106±15.0 144±17.4 100±11.1
Carbohydrate,g 364±44.8 392±35.6 335±24.8
Cu,mg 1.6±0.2a 2.4±0.3b 2.1±0.3b 1–3
Fe,mg 19.0±2.1 24.0±4.5 19.0±2.1 12
Mg,mg 335±26a 432±55b 405±74b 350
Zn,mg 13.4±1.3 15.8±1.7 13.3±2.2 15
*NRC(1989).
a,bDifferentsuperscriptsindicatestatisticallydifferent(P<0.05)meansamongdominantsomatotypes.
relatedtosomatotype;thisrelationshipwas DISCUSSION
significant only in the mesomorphs.
Correlations between individual somato- The findings of this study demonstrate
types and nutrient intakes were generally that dominant somatotype affects the body
weak, with only a few significant relation- structure,functionalresponseatpeakexer-
shipsidentified(Table6).Endomorphywas cise, and selected measurements of nutri-
inversely related (r # −0.25) to carbohy- tional status of men. They also provide evi-
drate,copper,iron,andmagnesiumintakes. dencethattheinfluenceofbodyphysiqueon
Incontrast,mesomorphywasdirectlycorre- physiologicalfunctionatpeakexercisemay
lated with fat and magnesium intakes. No be explained by a decrease of the energy-
significant relationships were found be- producing component of the body, fat-free
tween ectomorphy and nutrient intake. mass, or body cell mass.
STRUCTURE,FUNCTION,ANDNUTRITIONWITHEXERCISE 175
TABLE6.Summaryofpartialcorrelationsrelatingsomatotypecomponentsandbodystructural,functional,and
nutritionalvariables
Endomorphs Mesomorphs Ectomorphs
Bodystructure
Height,cm 0.544d −0.173 0.350c
Weight,kg 0.657d 0.152 −0.014
BMI,kg/m2 0.653d 0.410c −0.470d
Fat-freeweight,kg 0.352b 0.182 0.054
Fatweight,kg 0.687d 0.020 −0.100
Bodyfat,% 0.872d −0.142 −0.303a
Bodycellmass,kg −0.016 −0.127 −0.454d
Functionalresponses
Peakpower,W 0.075 0.252a 0.239a
V.E,L/min 0.180 0.247a 0.270a
V.O2,L/min 0.114 0.226 0.152
VO ,mL/kg/min −0.229 0.261a 0.256a
2
VCO ,L/min 0.044 0.244 0.183
2
RER −0.215 0.133 0.147
Heartrate,bpm 0.053 0.239 0.258a
V /VO 0.106 0.147 0.285a
E 2
V /VCO 0.246a 0.100 0.245a
E 2
Bloodlactate,nmol/L
Pre-exercise −0.206 0.081 −0.063
Post-exercise −0.218 0.187 0.251a
Bloodbiochemicalvariables
Hematocrit,% −0.009 −0.262a −0.221
Hemoglobin,g/L 0.001 −0.125 −0.092
PlasmaCu,mg/dL 0.468c −0.057 0.175
PlasmaMg,mg/dL 0.331a 0.401b 0.445b
PlasmaZn,mg/dL 0.173 0.300a 0.276a
PlasmaFe,mg/dL −0.163 −0.001 −0.004
Ferritin,mg/L −0.171 0.291a 0.051
TIBC,mg/dL 0.275 −0.012 0.121
Ceruloplasmin,mg/dL 0.757d 0.826d 0.833d
SOD,U −0.439c 0.204 0.160
TCHOL,mg/dL 0.393a 0.353a 0.356a
Triglycerides,mg/dL 0.517b 0.625d 0.448b
HDL,mg/dL −0.111 −0.493b −0.203
LDL,mg/dL 0.411c 0.484c 0.416c
VLDL,mg/dL 0.516c 0.624d 0.446c
Dietaryvariables
Energy,kcal/d −0.229 0.218 −0.003
Protein,g/d −0.063 0.108 0.043
Fat,g/d −0.069 0.286a 0.067
Carbohydrate,g/d −0.294a 0.078 −0.104
Cu,mg/d −0.361a 0.053 −0.208
Fe,mg/d −0.284a 0.160 −0.072
Mg,mg/d −0.246a 0.321a 0.101
Zn,mg/d −0.128 0.101 −0.067
aP<0.05.
bP<0.01.
cP<0.001.
dP<0.0001.
Somatotype has been described as the dependent variable in the determination of
overview of physique which is independent somatotype. A high value for standing
of size (Parnell, 1958). Parnell noted that height, associated with heavy body weight,
Sheldon et al.’s (1940) somatotypes concen- high skinfold fat, and large girth dimen-
trated on body shape, not body size, and sions, was characteristic of the dominant
they seemingly deliberately avoided size by endomorphs. A similarly high standing
placing height as the denominator in a se- height,butincombinationwiththeleastof
ries of body proportions by which he classi- body weight, skinfold fat, and girth, was
fiedphysiqueintermsofthreecomponents. characteristic of the dominant ectomorphic
The structural dimensions associated group. The dominant mesomorphs demon-
with the dominant somatotype groups in stratedanotheruniquecombination:lowest
this study identified standing height as a standing height with weight and skinfold
176 W.W.BOLONCHUKETAL.
fatlessthanthedominantendomorphsbut 0.20, and -0.34, respectively). Participants
greaterthanthedominantectomorphs,and in these studies only included college stu-
with girths greater than dominant ecto- dents.
morphs but not significantly different from Bolonchuk et al. (1989) reported similar
those of dominant endomorphs. Height ap- findings in samples of men (n 4 220) and
parentlyisasignificantdimensionindeter- women(n4200)ranginginagefrom17–74
miningsomatotypebutonlyincombination years. Endomorphy was significantly corre-
with other variables. lated with densitometrically determined
These findings agree with Boileau and percentfatinmenandwomenr40.80and
Lohman (1977) in that physique is charac- 0.87, respectively. Ectomorphy was nega-
terized by three distinct and complemen- tively correlated with percent body fat r 4
tarycomponents,includingbodysize,struc- −0.56 and −0.68 for men and women. FFW
ture, and composition. Body size refers to correlated significantly with mesomorphy r
the physical magnitude of the body and its 4 0.36 and ectomorphy r 4 −0.62 only in
segments.Bodystructurealludestothedis- men.
tributionofbodypartsexpressedasratiosof Generalizations regarding the specificity
stature. Composition is the amount of the of somatotypic ratings with body composi-
various chemical components of the body. tion measurements should be restricted. In
Although there is recurrent interest in de- previous studies (Dupertius et al., 1951;
scribing the relationship between physique Wilmore, 1970; Slaughter and Lohman,
and physical performance (Cureton, 1941; 1976; Bolonchuk et al., 1989), the highest
Carter, 1970), only generalizations are component of the somatotype rating was
available. As expressed by Sheldon et al. clear. These somatotypes, however, tended
(1940), Tanner (1964), and de Garay et al. toward midline ratings, not extremes or
(1974), individuals with relatively homog- dominantsomatotypes.Moreover,thedomi-
enous somatotypes participate in specific nanceoftheratingwasmodifiedbyasecond
sporting activities. Explanations for this component. Thus, the relationship of the
finding remain tenuous. dominant component to a body composition
One speculation is that somatotype re- variable may be diminished by the associa-
flects differences in body composition. This tionofthemodifyingcomponenttothesame
hypothesis rests on observed correlations variable. Bulbulian (1984) demonstrated a
between body composition determinations significantcorrelationbetweenendomorphy
and somatotype ratings. Dupertius et al. and percent body fat among individuals
(1951) found a significant negative correla- with extreme endomorphic ratings. Bolon-
tion between specific gravity and endomor- chuketal.(1990)discussedthiseffectofthe
phy and nonsignificant correlations be- modified somatotype on body composition.
tweenspecificgravity,mesomorphy,andec- In the present study, the impact of domi-
tomorphy. Wilmore (1970) evaluated the nant somatotype, after statistically adjust-
hypothesisthattheendomorphicandmeso- ing for the modifying somatotype compo-
morphiccomponentsrepresentthedegreeof nents, on body composition was investi-
fatness and FFW, respectively. Because of gated. Dominant endomorphy was
low correlations (r 4 0.16 and 0.41 for fe- significantly correlated with body fatness
males and males, respectively) between andfatweight,r40.872and0.687,respec-
FFWandmesomorphy,Wilmorequestioned tively; it also was significantly related to
thevalidityofconsideringthemesomorphic FFW, r 4 0.352. No significant relation-
componentasthefat-freebody.Wilmoreob- ships were identified for mesomorphy and
served greater correlation coefficients be- FFW. Ectomorphy, however, was signifi-
tweenpercentbodyfatandtheendomorphic cantly and inversely correlated with BCM
component among women and men (r 4 and body fatness, r 4 −0.454 and −0.303,
0.58 and 0.72, respectively). respectively. Thus, only endomorphy and
Slaughter and Lohman (1976) reported ectomorphy are strong predictors of body
significant correlations between percent composition.
body fat and endomorphy, mesomorphy, Anotherconsiderationintherelationship
and ectomorphy (r 4 0.74, 0.45, and −0.66, between somatotype and body composition
respectively). Correlation coefficients relat- istheimpactofstatureonthisrelationship.
ing FFW and the somatotype components Stature is one discriminating factor among
were not significant (P > 0.05; r 4 0.25, individualswithdifferentsomatotypes.Me-