Table Of ContentFirst Edition
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A I E
SSESSMENT S SSENTIAL
Susan K. Green
Winthrop University
Robert L. Johnson
University of South Carolina
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Green, Susan, 1949–
Assessment is essential / Susan Green, Robert L. Johnson. — 1st ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-07-337872-5 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-07-337872-0 (alk. paper)
1. Educational tests and measurements. I. Johnson, Robert L. (Robert Lewis), 1958– II. Title.
LB3051.G673 2010
371.26—dc22
2009012378
Th e Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. Th e inclusion of a
Web site does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill, and McGraw-Hill does not
guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.
www.mhhe.com
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F or our students and our mentors, past,
present, and future.
L earning is not attained by chance, it
must be sought for with ardor and
attended to with diligence.
– Abigail Adams
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T C
ABLE OF ONTENTS
Preface x Chapter Review Questions 29
References 30
CHAPTER 1 Why Is Assessment Essential? 3
CHAPTER 2 Learning Goals: Th e First Step 33
A Broad View: Assessment and Democratic
Values 3 Introduction 33
Th e Key Question—Will Th is Help My Students Defi ning and Using Learning Goals 33
Learn? 3
Backward Design 36
E qual Access to Educational Opportunity 4
Benefi ts of Specifying Learning Goals 37
S elf-Governing Skills for Participation in a
W here Do Learning Goals Come From? 39
Democracy 5
S tate and National Content Standards 39
T raditional Functions of Schools: Sorting and
Performance 6 District Curriculum Guides 41
T ransforming Functions of Schools: Helping All Children Teacher Editions 41
Learn with Mastery Goals 7 T oo Many Learning Goals, Too Little Time:
Assessment Tasks Th at Enhance Mastery Goals 9 Selecting Learning Goals 41
P romoting Mastery Goals through Assessment: H ow Do I Write Good Learning Goals? 43
Examples 11
Selecting the Verb 43
Th e Importance of Critical Th inking 14
Writing the Noun Phrase 44
A n Overview of Assessment 14
Specifi city of Learning Goals 44
Purposes of Assessment 15 Simplifying Learning Goals 45
A ction Research and the Inquiry Stance 19 Student Input to Learning Goals 45
Inquiry Stance 19 Learning Goals, Critical Th inking Skills,
I nquiry Stance and Action Research 20 and Taxonomies 45
Ethics and Assessment 23 Cognitive Taxonomies 45
Do No Harm 24 Aff ective and Psychomotor Taxonomies 51
Avoid Score Pollution 24 Tables of Specifi cations 53
E xamples from Classrooms and Headlines 25 Benefi ts of a Table of Specifi cations 55
Judgment Calls 26 U sing a Modifi ed Table of Specifi cations for
Harder Judgment Calls 26 Test Design 56
Your Turn 27 C hallenges in Using a Table of Specifi cations 56
Final Th oughts on Ethics and Assessment 27 Case Study Applications 58
Key Chapter Points 28 Key Chapter Points 61
Helpful Websites 29 Helpful Websites 61
iv
Table of Contents v
Chapter Review Questions 62 CHAPTER 4 Formative Assessment: Ongoing
References 62 Assessment to Promote Student
Success 95
Introduction 95
CHAPTER 3 Diagnostic Assessment: Formative Assessment: Th e Essential Link
Ensuring Student Success Between Teaching and Learning 95
from the Beginning 67 E lement 1: Make Students Aware of the
Learning Goals and Evaluation Standards 96
Introduction 67
E lement 2: Provide Formative Tasks Th at Involve
B efore You Begin: High Expectations and Understanding and Application 98
Behaviors Th at Convey Th em 68
E lement 3: Provide Students with Feedback to
C hoose Your Sources of Information Close Any Gaps 108
Wisely 70 E lement 4: Avoid Grading Formative Tasks 111
Before Classes Start 70 Element 5: Off er Students an Opportunity to
Aft er You Meet Your Students 74 Close Any Gaps 112
A s You Begin a New Unit of Instruction 75 E lement 6: Use Formative Assessment for
Enhancing Instruction 112
K ey Steps in Designing Pre-Unit Diagnostic
A ccommodations for Diverse Learners for
Assessments 76
Formative Assessment 113
1. Prioritize Content from Your Learning Goals 76
Case Study Application 114
2 . D esign and Administer Brief Measures of
Top Priority Content 77 Key Chapter Points 117
3. Gather Other Useful Information 80 Helpful Websites 117
4 . A nalyze Results of Preassessment to Chapter Review Questions 117
Determine Unit Content and Instructional
References 118
Strategies 80
M aking the Most of Your Diagnostic
Assessments 82
A ccommodations for Diverse Learners in CHAPTER 5 Progress Monitoring:
Diagnostic Assessment 83 Assessment as a
Motivational Tool 121
S tudents with Fine Motor Diffi culties 84
Students Learning English 85 Introduction 121
S tudents Who Have Already Mastered the G oal Setting as the First Key Step 122
Learning Goals 86
Commitment 122
S tudents Who Have Diffi culty Focusing
Specifi c, Shorter-Term Goals 123
Attention 87
F ormative Tasks as the Foundation for
S tudents with Literacy Skills Below Typical
Monitoring Growth 124
Peers 87
T wo Approaches to Progress Monitoring 126
S tudents Who Lack Familiarity with U.S. School
Culture 87 Mastery Monitoring 126
Final Th oughts on Accommodation for Diagnostic General Outcome Measurement 129
Assessment 89
I ssues to Consider: Progress Monitoring 134
Case Study Application 89
Summarizing Data for Groups 136
Key Chapter Points 91
Frequency Distributions 136
Helpful Websites 91
Measures of Central Tendency 138
Chapter Review Questions 92 B uilding a Useful Table: An Analysis and
References 92 Communication Tool 139
vi Table of Contents
Disaggregation Uncovers Hidden Trends 144 CHAPTER 7 Teacher-Made Assessments:
Case Study Application 145 Multiple-Choice and Other
Selected-Response Items 185
Key Chapter Points 149
Helpful Websites 149 Introduction 185
Chapter Review Questions 149 A ligning Items with Learning Goals and
Th inking Skills 186
References 151
Selected-Response Formats 186
Multiple-Choice Formats 186
CHAPTER 6 Essential Characteristics True-False Formats 189
of Assessment 153 Matching Formats 190
I nterpretive Exercises and Assessing Higher-Level
Introduction 153
Cognitive Levels 191
R eliability: Are We Getting Consistent Guidelines for Item Development 194
Information? 154
G eneral Guidelines for All Selected-Response Formats 195
Sources of Error 154
Guidelines for Specifi c Item Formats 204
Suffi ciency of Information 157
P itfalls to Avoid: Top Challenges in Designing
I mproving Reliability in Classroom Selected-Response Items 213
Assessments 157
Constructing the Assessment 213
V alidity: Will Scores Support Us in Making
Th e Value of Student-Generated Items and Critical
Good Decisions? 159
Th inking 216
I mportance of Purpose in Considering Validity 159
A ccommodations for Diverse Learners: Selected-
Evidence for Validity 160
Response Items 217
I mproving Validity in Classroom
S tudents with Fine Motor Diffi culties 217
Assessments 167
Students with Sensory Challenges 217
R elationship Between Reliability and
Students Learning English 217
Validity 168
S tudents Who Have Already Mastered the Learning
Avoiding Bias in Assessments 168
Goals 219
Unfair Penalization 169 S tudents Who Have Diffi culty Focusing Attention 219
Opportunity to Learn 170 S tudents with Literacy Skills Below Th ose of
Teacher Bias 171 Typical Peers 219
R epresenting the Diversity of the Classroom 174 S tudents Who Lack Familiarity with School Culture 219
Stereotypical Representation 174 Case Study Application 220
Contextual Invisibility 176 Key Chapter Points 221
Historical Distortions 176 Helpful Websites 221
Keeping the Th ree Democratic Values Chapter Review Questions 222
in Mind 177
References 222
E qual Access to Educational Opportunity 177
Skills for Democratic Participation 178
D evelopment of Critical Th inking Skills 178 CHAPTER 8 Teacher-Made Assessments: Short
Case Study Application 178 Answer and Essay 225
Key Chapter Points 181 Introduction 225
Helpful Websites 181 A ligning Items with Learning Goals and
Chapter Review Questions 181 Th inking Skills 226
References 183 C onstructed-Response Formats 226
Table of Contents vii
Short-Answer Formats 226 Scoring the Assessment 274
Essay Formats 227 Weighting Performance Criteria 276
Guidelines for Item Development 230 Attaching a Grade Scale 276
G eneral Guidelines for All Constructed-Response P itfalls to Avoid: Top Challenges in Performance
Formats 230 Assessments 278
Guidelines for Specifi c Item Formats 232 K eep the Task Related to Learning Goals 278
Constructing the Assessment 242 P rovide Practice Before Assigning the Task 279
Scoring the Assessment 242 L imit the Number of Performance Criteria in
the Rubric 279
Scoring Short Answers 242
Th e Value of Student-Generated Items and
Scoring Essays 242
Critical Th inking 279
Developing a Scoring Guide 248
A ccommodations for Diverse Learners:
Factors Contributing Error to Essay Scores 251
Performance Tasks 280
P itfalls to Avoid: Top Common Challenges
S tudents with Fine Motor Diffi culties 281
in Constructed-Response Items and
Scoring Guides 253 Students with Sensory Challenges 282
Essay Pitfalls 253 Students Learning English 282
Scoring Guide Pitfalls 254 S tudents Who Have Already Mastered the Learning
Goals 282
Th e Value of Student-Generated Items and
S tudents Who Have Diffi culty Focusing Attention 282
Critical Th inking 255
S tudents with Literacy Skills Below Th ose of Typical
A ccommodations for Diverse Learners:
Peers (e.g., Learning Disability) 282
Constructed-Response Items 255
S tudents Who Lack Familiarity with School Culture 283
Case Study Application 256
Case Study Application 283
Key Chapter Points 258
Key Chapter Points 286
Helpful Websites 259
Helpful Websites 287
Chapter Review Questions 259
Chapter Review Questions 287
References 288
CHAPTER 9 Teacher-Made Assessments:
Performance Assessments 263
CHAPTER 10 Grading and Communicating
Introduction 263
About Student Achievement 291
A ligning Items with Learning Goals and
Th inking Skills 264 Introduction 291
When to Use Performance Assessments 265 W hy Does Grading Cause So Many Problems? 291
A dvantages and Disadvantages of Performance Advocate Versus Evaluator 292
Assessments 266 Symbolic Value of Grades 293
Guidelines for Task Development 266 L ack of Agreement on the Judgment Process 294
S pecify the Understanding and Skills to Ambiguous Meaning of Grades 294
Be Addressed 266 Th e Grading Decision Process 295
B uild Meaningfulness into the Task 268
F ollow School District Grading Policy 296
Determine the Response Format 270
B ase Grading on Summative Assessments 296
C onsider the Materials and the Resources Required 272
Ensure Quality of Assessment 297
A ddress the Degree of Structure for a Task 272
Involve Students 298
Monitor the Reading Demands 272
W eigh Recent and Consistent Performance Most
Address Logistics in Task Directions 272 Heavily 299
viii Table of Contents
A void Unduly Weighting Factors Unrelated to Preparation for Tests 338
Mastery of the Learning Goals 300
Administration of Large-Scale Tests 340
A void Using Grades as Rewards and Punishments 304
L arge-Scale Test Accommodations for Diverse
Review Borderline Cases Carefully 304 Learners 341
A Special Case: Students with Disabilities 305 R eliability and Validity in Large-Scale Tests 342
Grading as a Skill 306 Reliability 342
T ypes of Grading Approaches 306 Validity 343
Basis for Comparison 306 Interpreting Norm-Referenced Tests 343
Types of Summarizing Systems 307 F oundational Issues in Interpretation of Test Scores 344
P ortfolios and Communicating About Importance of the Norm Group 344
Achievement 309
C omparing the Individual to the Norm Group 346
Portfolio Purposes 309
Interpreting Criterion-Referenced Tests 350
Implementation Issues 312
I nterpreting Large-Scale Tests for Students and
Portfolio Advantages and Limitations 317
Parents 350
Key Chapter Points 318
Explain Purpose and Content 351
Helpful Websites 318 E xplain the Basis for Comparison 351
Chapter Review Questions 319 Explain the Infl uence of Error on Scores 351
References 319 C hoose One Type of Score to Explain All Parts of
the Test 352
P ut the Scores in the Larger Context 352
CHAPTER 11 Large-Scale Standardized Tests W ork as Partners to Determine the Next Steps 353
and the Classroom 323 U sing Large-Scale Test Results in the
Classroom 353
Introduction 323
Key Chapter Points 354
Defi nitions Related to Large-Scale Standardized
Testing 324 Helpful Websites 355
Criterion-Referenced Scoring and Norm-Referenced Chapter Review Questions 355
Scoring 324 References 356
Achievement Tests and Aptitude Tests 326
M isconceptions Related to Large-Scale Testing 327
CHAPTER 12 Tying It All Together 359
M isconception 1. Obtained Score Represents the
True Score 328 Introduction 359
M isconception 2. Only Commercially Published
Six Essential Guidelines 359
Multiple-Choice Tests Can Be Standardized 328
G uideline 1: Begin with the End in Mind 360
M isconception 3. Norm-Referenced Tests Compare
G uideline 2: Find Out What Students Know 362
People Who Took the Test at the Same Time 332
G uideline 3: Check as You Go 362
M isconception 4. Standardized Tests with Multiple-
Choice Formats Address Basic Facts Only 332 G uideline 4: Teach Students to Check as You Go 363
M isconception 5: Using Large-Scale Tests to Address G uideline 5: Use Rubrics to Reinforce Attainment of the
Individual Student Needs 332 Learning Goals 363
Benefi ts and Pitfalls of Large-Scale Assessments 333 Guideline 6: Assess Yourself 364
Comparisons 333 Assessment Eff ectiveness and Effi ciency 365
Curriculum Concerns 334 Choose Assessment Opportunities Selectively 366
Addressing Improvement 336 Selectively Analyze Student Work 366
P reparation for and Administration of C arefully Target the Feedback You Provide 367
Large-Scale Tests 337 B uild in Time for Self- and Peer Review 368
Table of Contents ix
S tructure Record Keeping to Encourage Student N ow It’s Your Turn: Setting Personal Goals for
Self-Monitoring 368 Classroom Assessment 383
Develop an “Assessment Bank” 369 Personal Goal-Setting Steps 383
Enlist Students in Assessment Design 370 Key Chapter Points 385
A ssessment in the Context of a Democratic Society: Chapter Review Questions 385
Classroom Examples 370
Helpful Websites 386
Center for Inquiry 371
References 386
Knowledge Is Power Program (KIPP) 375
K ey to Assessment in the Context of Democratic
Glossary 388
Participation 380
Index 392
F ormative Assessment and Equal Access 381
F ormative Assessment and Self-Governing Skills 381
F ormative Assessment and Critical Th inking 381
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P
REFACE
A
ssessment Is Essential is designed for teacher candidates and practicing teachers.
Th e text can be used for a course that addresses classroom assessment as a major
component or in a standalone assessment course. Th e level of this course varies with
diff erent programs, but the text is accessible to candidates at all levels in their teacher
education program. Because of its practical focus and numerous examples, it is also
intended for continued use as a reference guide for practicing teachers.
Th e text describes key elements of quality assessment and provides many exam-
ples from classroom contexts to ensure accessibility for teachers and teacher candi-
dates with varying amounts of experience. Th ese discussions and examples aim to
help them grasp that assessment is an integral part of instruction impacting student
motivation and central to improving teaching and learning. Th is text fi lls an impor-
tant gap by drawing the reader into a new mindset that places assessment at the
forefront of teaching.
A key assumption guiding our work is that instructors of this course will be
preparing teacher candidates to demonstrate their impact on P–12 learners, as well as
to carry this capability into their classrooms as practicing teachers. Th is perspective
dovetails with current National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education
(NCATE) guidelines for accreditation that require teacher candidates’ documentation
of this capability. Implementing these guidelines requires candidates to develop com-
petencies in classroom assessment, as well as facility in interpreting these data to
enhance learning. To address these assessment needs, an additional groundbreaking
chapter is included, describing methods for determining student academic progress
across time for individuals, classes, and disaggregated groups.
A second assumption guiding this text is that assessment should also be looked
upon as a process for developing skills that contribute to the mission of educating
students in a democracy. Th e National Network for Educational Renewal (NNER), a
supporter of this series of texts, promotes several core principles as part of this mis-
sion. Th ese include providing students with the skills to become fully engaged par-
ticipants in a democratic society, providing equal access to quality learning for all
students, and continual renewal of educational institutions. As part of the series, this
text shows how these principles can be lived in the concrete reality of the classroom,
and they provide teacher candidates with a thoughtful answer to the “Why are we
doing this?” question about classroom assessment. By addressing the why of assess-
ment, we believe teachers will be more inclined to make good assessment an integral
part of their teaching.
To elaborate, our fi rst theme is that schools must teach children skills to be
active participants in a democracy. Schools are the only public institution expected
to teach children to value and take part in our democratic society. Producing a well-
informed citizenry requires cultivating students who take responsibility for their own
learning in school and beyond. Taking on this responsibility involves development of
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