Asia and the Arctic: Narratives, Perspectives and Policies

154 Pages·2016·1.52 MB·English

by  Vijay Sakhuja

Springer Geology
Vijay Sakhuja
Kapil Narula Editors
Asia and
the Arctic
Narratives, Perspectives and Policies
Springer Geology
The book series Springer Geology comprises a broad portfolio of scientific books,
aiming at researchers, students, and everyone interested in geology. The series
includes peer-reviewed monographs, edited volumes, textbooks, and conference
proceedings.Itcoverstheentireresearchareaofgeologyincluding,butnotlimited
to, economic geology, mineral resources, historical geology, quantitative geology,
structural geology, geomorphology, paleontology, and sedimentology.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10172
Vijay Sakhuja Kapil Narula
(cid:129)
Editors
Asia and the Arctic
Narratives, Perspectives and Policies
123
Editors
VijaySakhuja KapilNarula
National Maritime Foundation National Maritime Foundation
NewDelhi, Delhi NewDelhi, Delhi
India India
ISSN 2197-9545 ISSN 2197-9553 (electronic)
SpringerGeology
ISBN978-981-10-2058-2 ISBN978-981-10-2059-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-2059-9
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2016946626
©SpringerScience+BusinessMediaSingapore2016
Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpart
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
orinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilar
methodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publicationdoesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfrom
therelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authorsortheeditorsgiveawarranty,expressorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontainedhereinor
foranyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade.
Printedonacid-freepaper
ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbySpringerNature
TheregisteredcompanyisSpringerScience+BusinessMediaSingaporePteLtd.
Foreword 1
Thename‘Arctic’isderivedfromtheword‘Arktos’,whichinGreekmeans‘bear’
anditisoneofthedefiningcharacteristicsoftheArctic.TheArcticregionstretches
over 14.5 million square kilometres and includes the northern territories of the
Alaska (United States), Canada, Greenland (Denmark), Iceland, Norway, Sweden,
Finland, Russia and the Arctic Ocean. Sea ice, permafrost, glaciers and ice sheets
arethecharacteristicsofArctic’sphysicalterrain.Itisauniqueareaamongearth’s
ecosystems and the flora and fauna in the Arctic is shaped and defined to varying
degrees by the processes offreezing and thawing of ice, which gives the region a
distinctive nature. The Arctic supports terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosys-
tems.SometwotofourmillionpeopleliveintheArctictoday,whichincludeInuit,
Saami, Yupik, Aleut, Chukchi, Nenets and others indigenous people who have
adapted to the extreme conditions of the region over time. The region holds a
significant amount of the planet’s freshwater in the form of polar ice caps, conti-
nental ice sheets and glaciers and this ice plays a vital role in the global climate.
Apart from the regulatory role in the earth’s climate and in shaping weather pat-
terns, the region is important for preserving the genetic biodiversity of the planet
andforsupportingnativepeopleandsocieties.Itisalsoimportantfromthestrategic
perspective of different counties who have competing interests in the region.
Changing Dynamics in the Arctic
The Arctic region is currently going through a change which may well be irre-
versible and is impacting the entire globe. This region is therefore emerging as a
central arena for scientific research, geopolitics and commerce. The main driver of
this change is global warming induced climate change which has resulted in the
melting of ice in the region. Records show that the average temperatures in the
Arctic region are rising twice as fast as they are elsewhere in the world and
theArcticseaiceextentisdecliningattherateof3.4%perdecade,relativetothe
1981–2010 average. Scientific observations over the last decade and a half have
conclusivelyestablishedthattherehasbeenathinningoftheArcticseaice,melting
of the Greenland ice sheet, and thawing of the permafrost. This change brings
along with it various challenges and opportunities, each having its own inherent
v
vi Foreword1
dynamics.Meltingicehasalsoledtotheopeningofnewshippingroutesfortrade,
has increased the feasibility of exploration for mineral resources and offshore
extractionofoilandgas,hasledtoanincreaseinthefishingseasonandhasopened
up a host of tourism related commercial opportunities.
Emerging Opportunities
The insatiable need for energy and mineral resources is fueling strategic compe-
tition among Arctic littorals for exploiting the resource-rich Arctic. This region,
which is expected to contain up to 10–20 % of the world’s oil and nearly 30 %
of the world’s unknown natural gas reserves, is therefore a rich repository of
resources. Based on the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in 2008, it is estimated
that the “undiscovered, technically recoverable” reserves of hydrocarbons include
90billionbarrelsofoil,1670trillioncubicfeetofnaturalgas,and44billionbarrels
of natural gas liquids. Other potential sources of energy include huge quantities of
methane hydrate deposits which are found on continental shelves in the Arctic.
Apartfromhydrocarbons,theArctichaslargemineralreserves,rangingfromzinc,
lead, nickel, coal and other precious metals such as gold, diamond and platinum.
The Arctic seas contain some of the world’s oldest and richest commercial fishing
grounds which have not yet been exploited.
The relatively ice-free summers in the recent past in some parts of the Arctic
havealsoattractedtheinterestofcommercialshippingoperators.Theopeningupof
Northern Sea Route (NSR) and the North West Passage (NWP) is a boon for the
shipping industry. While the NWP considerably shortens the distance for travel
from Scandinavian countries to the west coast of the United States, the NSR has
great strategic and commercial importance as it bypasses the choke points in the
Indian Ocean. These routes also provide significant commercial opportunities to
transportmineralsandenergy resourcesfrom theArcticandtobring backfinished
products. Although these sea routes save fuel and time, they are currently niche
tradingroutesasitisicefreeonlyforfewmonthsinayear.TheNSRhaswitnessed
continued growth in traffic from 2009 to 2013, but this was followed by a steep
downturn in 2014 and only 23 vessels undertook the full journey, as against 71
vessels in 2013. This might however be a temporary phenomenon and shipping
through the Arctic may recover quickly to emerge as an economically viable
alternative to traditional sea routes.
Challenges Confronting the Arctic
While there are significant opportunities, the Arctic also presents a host of chal-
lenges which will need to be overcome in the near future. Key amongst these are
resolution ofoverlapping claims anddemarcationof EEZ boundaries, the threatof
Foreword1 vii
militarization, Arctic governance, protection of rights of indigenous people, envi-
ronmental protection and securitization of the Arctic amongst others. Other chal-
lenges include the harsh climatic conditions, infrastructure constraints, technology
limitations,shortageofqualifiedpersonnelandanincompleteunderstandingofthe
environmental risks in the Arctic.
Although the land boundaries between the Arctic countries are agreed upon,
there are overlapping claims in the oceans. While some of the maritime boundary
disputeshavebeenresolved bilaterally,othersareintheprocessofresolutionwith
‘equity’beingtheguidingprinciple.However,beyondthe200mileEEZlimit,five
Arcticcountrieslayaclaimtotheseabedresourcesbyattemptingtoprovethatthe
seabedisanextensionoftheircontinentalshelf.WhileRussiasubmitteditsclaimin
2001, Norway (2007), Canada (2013) and Denmark (2014) too have submitted
claims for an extended continental shelf to the United Nations Commission on the
Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS). The issues of ‘Internal Waters’ and
‘Svalbard’ also contribute to the maritime disputes in the Arctic.
Whilemaritime disputes primarilyflow fromeconomicinterests,they arebeing
resolvedinthespiritofcooperationandwithinaninstitutionalframeworkunderthe
1982 UNCLOS. However, the strategic importance of the Arctic extends beyond
resources into the security regime and therefore plays an important role in the
region. Although the threatof militarization has significantly reduced after the end
oftheColdWar,eachcountrycontinuestomaintainmilitarypresenceintheArctic,
in line with its threat perception, while significantly collaborating to enhance sta-
bility through confidence-building measures.
Institutionsplayavitalroleinevolvingmechanismsforgovernance.TheArctic
Council, which was formed in 1996, is a high-level intergovernmental forum that
addressesvariousissuesandmakespolicydecisionsintheArctic.Itcurrentlyhas8
full member countries, 12 permanent observers and 6 ad hoc observers. Canada is
the current chair of the Arctic Council and has significantly consolidated the pro-
cess of confidence building apart from demonstrating a leadership role in the
protectionofenvironmentandsupporttotherightsoftheindigenouscommunities.
ItcompletesitsterminMay2015afterwhichtheUnitedStatesisscheduledtotake
over the chairmanship of the Arctic Council.
Overthenextfewdecades,climatechangeisexpectedtoaccelerate,resultingin
major physical, ecological, social and economic changes in the Arctic, many of
which have already begun. Due to the sensitive nature of the Arctic, the region is
extremely vulnerable and climate change is emerging as the significant stressor on
the Arctic biodiversity. Environmental protection therefore would continue to
remain one of the main challenges for the Arctic littorals.
Inthefaceoftheabovechallenges,theArcticregionisexperiencingheightened
activity and politico-strategic interests are driving diplomatic efforts by various
countries to address these issues. These developments are also bringing the Arctic
andAsiansecurityintereststogether,andintheprocessischangingAsia’sstrategic
boundaries.
viii Foreword1
Growing Role of Asian Countries
Five Asian countries—China, India, Japan, Republic of Korea and Singapore—
joinedtheArcticCouncilas‘PermanentObservers’in2013.Thegrantofthisstatus
acknowledges the growing significance of these countries and hints at the con-
structive role of the Asian countries in understanding the Arctic region.
Scientific research is a common area of interest for all Asian countries in the
Arctic.ManyofthesecountriesincludingChinahavesetuppolarresearchstations
in the Arctic. Japan was the first Asian country to undertake Arctic scientific
research and to determine the viability of the Northern Sea Route. Republic of
Koreahastheadvantageofawell-developedshipbuildingindustrytoprovideships
capableoftraversingthroughtheice.Singaporehasatechnologicaledgeinmarine
industries,particularlyinmanagementofports,deploymentofoffshoremarineand
engineering, and has a keen interest in the development of international maritime
policy.
India has developed significant expertise in Arctic scientific research, which is
underpinned by decades of experience in its Antarctica research programme. In
2007, India established ‘Himadri’ a polar research station at Ny Alesund,
Spitsbergen, Norway and initiated projects dealing with atmospheric science,
microbiology and glaciology. There are 14 national research institutions that sup-
port India’s polar research programme and the Indian government has now
approved the acquisition of an ice-class polar research vessel.
ItisevidentthattheAsiancountrieshaveavarietyofinterestsintheArctic,and
the grant of Permanent Observer status to these countries is an acknowledgement
of their multifaceted capabilities. These countries are keen to make use of the
emerging opportunities in the Arctic, and are thus formulating appropriate
long-term national strategies. The preliminary approach of the Asian observer
countries has rightly been to graduate from ‘involvement’ to ‘engagement’ in the
Arctic, which seems to have generated significant interest amongst analysts.
Given the above developments, this book brings together Arctic and Asian
stakeholders with an aim to understand and evolve a common approach to maxi-
mize opportunities in the Arctic while effectively overcoming the challenges the
regionpresents, ina responsible and consultative manner. The book emerges from
the perspectives shared in the Annual Maritime Power Conference of the National
Maritime Foundation held during February 2015.
The first academic session ‘Evolving Dynamics in the Arctic’ discussed the
drivers of change and their impact on the Arctic. The next two sessions ‘Asian
Strategies and Policies in the Arctic’ were devoted to understanding the interests,
strategies and policies of Asian countries with regard to the Arctic region. The
fourth session ‘Arctic Countries’ Perspectives on Asian Approaches’ attempted to
understand the perspectives of Arctic littorals on the engagement of Asian coun-
tries. It is evident that all stakeholders in the Arctic region, including the Asian
countries, have shared interests in the sustainable development of the region. The
final academic session was structured in the form of a panel discussion titled
Foreword1 ix
‘Exploring a pan-Asian Approach to the Arctic’ and attempted to evolve a col-
laborative approach by the Asian countries to the Arctic.
The perspectives of scholars, academics, diplomats, government functionaries
and practicing professionals from Arctic and Asian countries make this book
unique.Theperspectivespresentedareenrichingandinformativeandleadtosome
key policy takeaways which would be able to make a valuable contribution to
influence the future discourse on the Arctic.
April 2016 Admiral D.K. Joshi
PVSM, AVSM, YSM, NM, VSM (Retd.)
Chairman
National Maritime Foundation