Table Of ContentIndigenous Management of Stress in Tribals
Communities of Odisha, India: Implications
for Mainstream Population
Arundhati Biswal DEEW, India
Fakir M. Sahoo Xavier Institute of Management, India
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Arundhati Biswal, Chair
person, Development, Education, Empowerment of Women (DEEW), D4 MaitriVihar,
Chandrasekharpur, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Email: [email protected]
[email protected]
Abstract
Tribalss constitute an integral component of demography in India. An intensive observation
of tribals life shows that tribalss experience less stress than nontribalss. The present
investigation is geared to identify underlying mechanisms of successful adaptation. Two
interrelated studies were conducted. Study 1 was directed to document the positive
adaptation of tribalss in an eastern state (Odisha) of India. One hundred adult tribalss (50
males and 50 females) and similar groups of nontribalss participated in the study. All
participants were individually administered a variant of Cornell Medical Inventory. The
analysis revealed no sex difference on physical, psychological and overall discomfort scores.
However, the result indicated significantly less stress of tribalss on these three indicators.
Study 2 was conducted to identify adaptation styles of tribalss. Critical incidents - incidents
that cause maximum discomfort – were generated in gatherings of informal discussion.
Subsequently tribalss and nontribalss were interviewed; they were asked to describe the
way they handle disturbing events. The analysis evinced that tribalss explain negative event
in terms of external, unstable and specific terms. Furthermore, tribalss consistently use
communal sharing as a stress reliever. The positive role of adaptive attribution and social
support system were posited as intervention inputs for nontribals population.
Key Words: indigenous, tribals, ethnostress, adaptation, attribution styles, communal
sharing, coping
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Introduction
The term ‘tribe’ refers to a type of society and designates a stage of evolution in human
society. As a type of society the term signifies a set of characteristic features, and as a stage
of evolution it connotes a specific mode of social organization.
In India there is an amalgam of 437 tribes, and in Odisha the number is sixty two.
According to 2011 census, tribalss constitute approximately 8% of Indian population. In
Odihsa, tribals constitute approximately 22% of the population.
Linguistically the tribes of India are broadly classified into four categories, namely (1)
Indo-Aryan speakers, (2) Dravidian speakers, (3) Tibeto-Burmese speakers, and (4) Austic
speakers. There are some four hundred tribals languages; most of the tribes have their own
languages. However, in a majority of cases, these languages are unwritten ones. In Odisha,
the speakers of the Tibeto-Burmese language family are absent, and therefore Odishan
tribes belong to other three language families (Mahapatra, 1990).
A major portion of the tribals habitat is hilly and forested. Tribals economy is
characterized as subsistence oriented. The subsistence economy is based mainly on
collecting, hunting and fishing, or a combination of hunting and collecting with shifting
cultivation. Subsistence economy is characterized by simple technology, simple division of
labour, small-scale units of production, and no investment of capital. The social unit of
production, distribution and consumption is limited to the family and lineage.
To deal with the problematic aspects of difficult environment, the concepts of stress
and adaptation have been used. The term stress has a theoretical basis in studies of how
people deal with negative experiences (called stressors) by engaging in various coping
strategies (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Within this framework, people are seen as potentially
able to deal effectively with stressors in their lives and to achieve some form of adaptation.
However, an understanding of the nature of coping responses requires recognition
of several forms of stressors such as ethnostress, acculturative stress and life events stress.
Ethnostress. Ethnostress originates from the root “ethnicity” which refers to
indigenous identity and “stress” is the negative impact of one’s real life experience.
Indigenous people have their unique form of social organization, spiritual practice and
system. They develop their social system such that they can function in a manner that
supports their belief and help them to understand “natural law”. Any deviation from their
usual life style which is purely an indigenous way causes physical, psychological, emotional
and spiritual stress. For example: when television was first introduced and used by Eskimos
many people of this aboriginal group complained about hearing difficulties. Another
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example concerns the “Bonda” tribes of Kalahandi (India). When government took steps to
bring the community to mainstream by implementing many developmental activities they
expressed both physical and psychological discomfort because of the intervention. People of
this aboriginal group complained that they were experiencing skin irritation while using
clothes or body coverings. Implementation of education and setting up boarding schools in
remote tribals villages generated stress of physical, psychological and emotional nature
stemming from the separation of children from family. This was primarily because of the
fact that intervention enforced many changes in their social life.
Ethnostress is primarily a result of psychological response pattern that stems from
the disruption of a cultural life and belief system that one cares about deeply. The struggle
to maintain traditional identities in the modern mainstream context and the resulting sense
of disempowerment is symptomatic of what Cajete (as reported by Carstarphen & Sanchez,
2012) refers to ethnostress. Ethnostress results when oppressive conditions are forced upon
a people in their own environment. Explicit environmental racism puts a lot of stress on its
victim. Hightower-Longster (2002) reports that Winoa La Duke views stress in relation to
the Northern tribe’s (U.S.A.)struggle with coal mining. The development of coal mining on or
near the lands belonging to the tribe imposes non-tribals values on the tribals members
which causes tremendous stress among the tribals community.
"Ethnostress" refers to the disruption and loss of a positive Native identity those
results when negative messages and images about being Native are internalized and
believed. These negative messages are acted upon and played out within many different
types of relationships that characterize their lives. Again ethnostress occurs under the
condition of negative experience. It is the experience of negative feeling when we interact
with our own or some other cultural group. This is defined as, “internalized racism”.
Ethnostress reaches its peak when feeling of hopelessness and powerlessness pervades our
community existence (Antone & Hill, 1992). Feeling of fear and anger, loss and confusion of
identity causes “ethnostress” among indigenous people. However, the coping mechanism
seems to be different from the mainstream population.
Awareness and understanding of ethnostress phenomenon will provide some insight
into the methods and approaches necessary for helping people to overcome their personal
histories and negative life experiences. Ethnostress is actually a human phenomenon that
affects all people of various racial and cultural groups. It is important to understand the
phenomenon if we are to learn how to relate more positively with one another and to all
things within Creation and if we are to develop the healthy self-esteem and self-confidence
necessary to achieve our potential within a multi-cultural world.
However, the basic concept of ethnostress provides a broader understanding and
vision of the work required in organizational management and community development
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programmes. So when problems arise, whether it is within an organization or family or
community we will be able to handle it without judging and blaming at the same time find
out the root cause of the problem. Distress patterns, cause of such behaviour are the issues
which can be addressed at work places. The behaviours of ethnostress are:
Narrowing of culture
Culture under glass
Adoption of Survivalist Behaviour
Contradiction Of in Values / Beliefs
Frozen Needs
Internalized Stereotypes
Loss of Faith and Belief in One’s Culture
Internal Factionalism
Acculturate stress. Another form of stress experienced by tribals communities
involves acculturative stress. The concept of acculturative stress has been articulated by
Berry (1970). Acculturative stress is a response by people to life events that are rooted in
intercultural contact. Frequently, these reactions include heightened levels of depression
(linked to the experience of cultural loss) and of anxiety (linked to uncertainty about how
one should live in the new society). This form of stress is relevant when tribalss adopt
transitional lifestyles making a shift from hunting-gathering mode to agricultural pattern of
living.
A host of factors moderate the level of acculturative stress. Two key determinants
involve the culture distance and the degree of insistence that journey of change be taken. In
addition, one’s age has a known relationship to the way acculturation will proceed. When
acculturation starts early (e.g., prior to entry into primary school), the process is generally
smooth. Gender has variable influence on the acculturation process. There is substantial
evidence that females may be more at risk for problems than males. Education appears as a
consistent factor associated with possible adaptation, higher education is predictive of
lower stress.
Life events stress. Stress is not limited to questions surrounding self-identity and
transition. The existential problems and daily hassles also induce stress. The death of the
loved ones, sickness in the family, financial loss, arguments with the employer, loss of job,
and other disturbing events of life induce stress.
Working in tribals localities along with the community is very interesting as their
lifestyle differs from the mainstream population in many ways. While working in different
projects we observed that their food habit, living pattern, source of entertainment and
adaptability differ across tribals groups. One of the interesting parts which we sensed is that
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in spite of their miserable socioeconomic status, the stress level of tribals people is much
less than ours and they handle it very easily. We perceived tribals people have less
psychological stress than non-tribals people. Prior to delineating the mechanisms of their
destressing behaviours, we wanted to document their lower levels of stress in comparison
with mainstream population.
The study was conducted in two phases.
Study 1
Ethnostress occurs when people are apprehensive about their identity and suffer from both
mental confusion and physical and emotional pain which heightens individuals’ sense of
powerlessness and hopelessness. Ethnography helps us to study ethnic groups and to gather
empirical data on human culture and society. It involves the ethnographer’s or researcher’s
observation, participation, interaction with the target members of the indigenous groups. It
also helps the researchers to rethink, reflect, write and describe cultures , it’s members and
their own involvement with them. Ethnography involves primary research and involves
immersion and prolonged study of the observed culture.
Method
The study was conducted in different tribals patches of Sundergarh district of Odisha (India).
Sundergarh district is located in the Northern extremity of Odisha, lies between 210 32’ and
220 32’ north latitudes and 830 32’ and 850 22’ east longitude. Total population of the district
is 2,080,664 and 0f this population, tribals constitute 51% (Census of India, 2011). Paudi
Bhuiyan, Kisan, Oram, Munda, Mundari, and Khadia are the types of tribes which are found
in Sundergarh district of Odisha. They reside in very remote places, mostly on hill tops; do
not show any interest to be involved in the mainstream activities or the special facilities
which government implements for them. In spite of all the developmental initiatives the
tribals are still threatened by abject poverty. The growth of industrialization, urbanization
and cash economy have affected the aboriginal group in many ways. The destruction of
biomass to meet the urban and industrial need is a great challenge; it leads to deforestation
and impacts the lives of tribals leading to stress among the aboriginal group. With a view to
comparing stress across groups, an empirical study was undertaken.
Design. The study involved a factorial 2 (setting tribals versus nontribals) X 2 (sex)
design where males and females were crossed with two categories of tribals and nontribals
populations. The design involves the comparison of physical, psychological and overall stress
scores across gender groups as well as tribals-nontribals groups.
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Sample. The sample involved two hundred adults which included adults of tribals
and nontribals community. The total pool of participants comprised of 200 adults. Half of
the participants were tribals whereas the other half of participants was nontribals. Half of
the participants were males and other half of participants was females. Age range varied
from 25 years to 75 years for tribals group and 18 years to 68 years for nontribals group.
Tribals people who participated belonged to indigenous groups like Paudibhuian, Oram,
Munda, Mundari, Kishan, Ganda, and Khadia. These tribalss live in Sundergarh district and
Villages include Sanbeura, Badbeura, Gadruan, Tiljura, Gopapur,Suarpali, and Didiga.
Nontribals participants belonged to castes like kulita, Gauda, Gudia, Lura, Muslim, Kurmi,
Mahato, Alia, Gadiat, Sikh, Kayasth, Banika, Marwari, Turi, Rautia, Lohar, Ghasi, Kumhar and
Blacksmith. All of them were habitats of Sundergarh district and chosen from villages like
Jamberna, Sanramlei, Bisra, Jajpur, Kanika, Sorda, Chirabeda, Talbahal, Manko, Jodabandh,
Barsuan, and Bagdega.
Measure. All participants were individually administered a modified version of the
Cornell Medical Health Questionnaire (CMI). The original questionnaire was designed by
Broadman, Erdmann, Lorge, Gershenson, and Wolff (1952). The respondent is asked to
answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to 60 simply worded questions on health. Half of the items deal with
physical discomfort and the other half of the items deal with psychological discomfort. The
questions seeking information on physical and emotional symptoms fall into several
sections (e.g., eyes and ears, respiratory, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, exhaustion,
general ill health, habits, depression, anxiety, sensitivity and tension). The CMI was
considerably adapted to suit the eco-cultural context. The items were indigenously
meaningful. Two representative items from physical category include: Do you have crack in
your feet? Do you experience loss of appetite? Two representative items from psychological
category include: Do you find difficulty in getting sleep once you get up? Do you hate leaving
the house?
Procedure. Participants were individually administered the CMI and data were
recorded for analysis. Analysis of variance was conducted to find out the significance of the
differences across groups.
Results
The basic purpose of the empirical investigation is to examine group differences with
respect to physical discomfort, psychological discomfort, and overall discomfort (stress). The
Analysis of Variance performed on physical discomfort shows significant setting effect,
F(1,196) = 4.09, p<.05 (see Table 1). As shown by Table 2, nontribals participants report
Insert Table 1 & 2 about here
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greater physical discomfort than do tribals participants (M = 17.10 and 14.50, respectively).
However the result shows nonsignificant sex effect, F(1,196) = 0.33, n.s. The setting x sex
effect is also found to be nonsignificant.
The ANOVA performed on psychological discomfort indicates significant setting
effect, F(1,196) = 13.98, p<.001. As shown by Table 2, nontribals participants report greater
psychological discomfort compared with tribals participants (M = 13.33 and 8.73,
respectively). There is no significant sex effect, F(1,196) = 0.07, n.s. Males exhibit as much
psychological discomfort as do females (M = 10.87 and 11.20, respectively). There is also
nonsignificant setting x sex effect.
Analysis of Variance performed on overall discomfort scores indicates similar
pattern. It shows significant setting effect, F(1,196) = 7.10, p<.01. Nontribals participants
report greater overall discomfort than do tribals participants (M = 24.17 and 29.50,
respectively). The result shows nonsignificant sex effect, F(1,196) = 2.15, n.s. Similarly there
is no significant setting x sex effect, F(1,196) = 0.09, n.s.
In sum, nontribalss show a greater degree of physical, psychological, and overall
stress than do tribals participants. There is no sex difference on any of these parameters.
Irrespective of gender, nontribalss experience greater stress than tribals participants.
The findings are in conformity with our expectation. Although our involvement with
developmental activities in tribals areas of Odisha deepens our hunches regarding relatively
low stress amongst tribalss, present investigation employing standardized measure provides
supportive conclusion. However, it does not answer the basic question concerning the
underlying mechanisms of coping style. Accordingly Study 2 was planned and conducted to
delineate the indigenous ways of handling stress.
Study 2
It was considered appropriate to use stimulus materials that would be sensitive enough to
be perceived as stressors both by tribals and nontribals populations. With this rationale,
Critical Incident Technique (CIT) was used separately for tribals and nontribals groups in
naturalistic settings. The studies of Sir Francis Galton are said to have laid the foundation for
the Critical Incident Technique but it is the work of Colonel John C. Flanagan,that resulted in
the present form of CIT. According to Flanagan, CIT is a set of procedure for direct
observation of human behaviour in such a way as to facilitate their potential usefulness in
solving practical problems and developing broad psychological principles.
As a prelude to Study 2, informal gatherings of tribals groups were arranged. In a
format of focussed group discussions, participants were asked to indicate certain critical
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events that bother them most. We facilitated the discussion without much intervention. Our
purpose was to make them verbal. On the basis of frequency counts of critical events
generated, we delineated five critical events for tribalss and five critical events for
nontribalss.
Method
In order to identify the coping mechanism employed by tribals, this study was designed
during Phase 2 of the project. Tribals and nontribals adults participated in the study. The
study had two sequences. The format was individual interview during the first sequence and
format was group discussion during the second sequence. During the individual sequence,
each participant was provided with a list of five depressing life events and respondents were
asked to tell about the way they deal with each event. The interview was a conversation
between the respondent and the interviewer where questions were asked by the
interviewer to obtain information from the interviewee. The main task of interviewing was
to understand the coping pattern of interviewees. In the second sequence, groups
consisting of five members each were constituted. They were asked to discuss for about 1 to
1 ½ hr about their common problems and coping mechanisms. Structured and semi
structured interviews were conducted in this phase.
Design. The study involved a two group design (setting tribals versus nontribals).Four
hundred adults participated in the study. Half of them were tribals and other half were
nontribals. The samples were drawn from different patches of Sundergarh district of Odisha
(India). Data collection and content analysis were done across different cultural groups. The
entire process followed the principle of ethnographic studies. Goodenough (1980) wrote
that ethnography means “learning from people”. According to Goodenough, ethnography
can be defined as “the systematic process of observing, detailing, describing, documenting,
and analyzing the life ways or particular patterns of a culture (or subculture) in order to
grasp the life ways or patterns of the people in their familiar environment”. Data were
collected through participant’s observations and interviews. The data were bracketed, made
explicit, personal biases and beliefs were also noted down simultaneously and set them
aside, and then tried to understand the daily lives of individuals as they live them. Data
collection and analysis were done simultaneously. People who were most knowledgeable
about the culture were also interviewed who were called as key informants.
Sample. The sample involved two hundred tribals and two hundred nontribals
adults. However there was no fixed proportion for sex. The age range for tribalss varied
from 25 to 70 years and 20 to 55 years for nontribals.
Tribals people who were interviewed belonged to indigenous groups like
Paudibhuiyan, Ganda, Munda, Mundari, and Bhuiyan. They are the inhabitants of
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Sundergarh district and came from villages like, Daleisara, Lunga, Dhukamunda, Tadi, Angul,
Gadruan, Kuiposh, Rangmatia, Mukundapani and Badjal.
Nontribals participants belonged to castes like Rajput, Brahmin, Bhata, Rautia, Kurmi
and Gauda. The villages were Rourkela, Panposh, Gemal (Tangripali), Rengalmal, Dumetra,
Sing basti, Ganjhotola, Therlibahal etc.
Measure. A structured questionnaire was prepared on the basis of the generated
pool of critical dimensions. The questionnaire contained five life depressing events. The
items were only related to psychological state and to what extent the events affected the
participant. The following instruction was given:
All of us encounter bad events. You might have also faced some events that
make you unhappy. Tell us the ways you try to overcome your depression and
negative feelings. We would indicate an event and tell us honestly the way you
try to handle the situation. In particular, try to answer the following questions
1. How much sadness do you experience?
A little, somewhat sad, very sad, extremely sad
2. Who do you think is to be blamed for the event?
3. How long would it keep you depressed?
4. Apart from your personal / work life, what are the other areas of your life
that get affected?
5. How would you reconcile with the disturbing situation?
6. Any other thing you would like to relate in this context.
Event 1
Suppose your spouse dies . . . . . . . . . . .
Procedure. The respondents were asked to share their feelings and opinions freely
about the life depressing events which were generated prior to the interview. Some semi
structured questions were also asked to draw more information and all the interactions
were recorded for analysis. Video recordings of the interviews were kept for interpretation
of certain indigenous meanings of the conversation as they speak typical tribals languages
which were difficult to understand at the time of interview.
Results
The individual as well as group level of interaction generates a number of salient features of
adaptation process. The summary has been depicted in Table 3. As shown by the Table,
tribalss employ an external explanatory style; they do not view themselves as the cause of
the tragedy. As a consequence, they experience relatively less self-blame. Nontribalss, on
the contrary, make use of internal attribution style. For many disturbing events, they
consider themselves as the cause of the event. This kind of self-blame increases their
depression.
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Description:The term 'tribe' refers to a type of society and designates a stage of evolution in .
Bisra, Jajpur, Kanika, Sorda, Chirabeda, Talbahal, Manko, Jodabandh,.
