Table Of ContentARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
AND AUTONOMOUS SHIPPING
This collection of essays critically evaluates the legal framework necessary for the
use of autonomous ships in international waters. The work is divided into three
parts:
Part 1 evaluates how far national shipping regulation, and the public
international law background that lies behind it, may need modification and
updating to accommodate the use of autonomous ships on international voyages.
Part 2 evaluates the new legal challenges that autonomous shipping will
introduce and the possible need for changes in the insurance market in terms of
providing cover for such vessels.
Part 3 analyses international convention regimes dealing with maritime safety
and other matters, arguing for specific changes in the existing conventions, such as
SOLAS and MARPOL, which would provide the international framework that is
necessary for putting autonomous ships into commercial use.
The book also takes the view that amendment of international conventions
is important in the case of liability issues, arguing that leaving such matters to
national law, particularly issues concerning product liability, could not only restrict
or hinder the availability of liability insurance but also hamper the development of
technology in this field.
Written by internationally recognised experts in their respective areas, the
book offers a holistic approach to the debate on autonomous ships and makes a
timely and important contribution to the literature.
ii
Artificial Intelligence
and Autonomous Shipping
Developing the International Legal Framework
Edited by
Barış Soyer
and
Andrew Tettenborn
HART PUBLISHING
Bloomsbury Publishing Plc
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data
Names: Soyer, Barış, editor. | Tettenborn, Andrew, editor.
Title: Artificial intelligence and autonomous shipping :
developing the international legal framework / edited by Barış Soyer and Andrew Tettenborn.
Description: Oxford, UK ; New York, NY : Hart Publishing,
an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing, 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021002360 (print) | LCCN 2021002361 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781509933358 (hardback) | ISBN 9781509947935 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781509933365 (pdf) | ISBN 9781509933372 (Epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Maritime law. | Shipping—Technological innovations. | Ships—Automation. |
Marine insurance—Law and legislation. | Marine pollution—Law and legislation. | Law of the sea. |
Shipping—Safety regulations. | International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution
from Ships (1973) | International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (1974 November 1)
Classification: LCC K1150 .A925 2021 (print) | LCC K1150 (ebook) | DDC 343.09/65—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021002360
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021002361
ISBN: HB: 978-1-50993-335-8
ePDF: 978-1-50993-336-5
ePub: 978-1-50993-337-2
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The idea of writing a book evaluating the legal issues surrounding maritime auton-
omous surface ships, or MASSs, first surfaced spontaneously during an otherwise
dull meeting in June 2018 of Swansea Law School’s Institute of Shipping and
Trade Law. We shortly afterwards discovered that Roderick Bagshaw and Peter
Macdonald Eggers also found the idea fascinating, and were delighted when they
enthusiastically agreed to come on board.
We would like to take this opportunity to thank our colleagues at the IISTL
for supporting us with useful feedback on key matters, in particular Professor
Richard Williams and Dr Iur Bűlent Sőzer. In this context, we need to mention
our research assistant, Miss Alicia McKenzie, who has been excellent! Also, we
wish to express our enormous appreciation for a number of academics from other
institutions who engaged in fruitful and helpful discussions with us on a raft of
issues. In this connection our thanks must go in particular to Professor Olivier
Cachard (Lorraine University), Professor Lia Athanasiou (Athens University),
Professor James Hu (Shanghai Maritime University) and Professor Beiping Chu
(Dalian Maritime University).
Last but not least, we are grateful to the editorial team at Hart Publishing,
namely Roberta Bassi, and Rosemarie Mearns for giving us fantastic support from
beginning to the end!
Needless to say, we are responsible for any errors or omissions.
BS & AT
vi
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������v
The Contributors ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xi
Table of Cases ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xv
Table of Legislation ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xxi
Table of European and International Legislation �������������������������������������������������xxvii
Introduction �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1
PART I
MASS IN THE CONTEXT OF THE EXISTING
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
1. International Regulation of Shipping and Unmanned Vessels �����������������������������7
Professors Simon Baughen and Andrew Tettenborn
I. Introduction ....................................................................................................7
A. Degrees of Automation .........................................................................8
B. The Approach of the CMI and this Chapter ....................................10
C. The Master and the Crew – A Definitional Issue ............................11
II. The Issues Arising ........................................................................................13
A. Manning Requirements ......................................................................13
B. References to Onboard Human Activity by Master or Crew .........15
C. Documentary Requirements ..............................................................19
D. Vessel Construction, Design and Operation: SOLAS,
ISPS and Beyond ..................................................................................20
III. Conclusion ....................................................................................................21
2. International Law of the Sea and Autonomous Cargo ‘Vessels’ �������������������������25
Dr Youri van Logchem
I. Introduction ..................................................................................................25
II. Maritime Autonomous Craft and the Law of the Sea:
An Overview .................................................................................................27
III. The Threshold Question of Defining Autonomous Cargo Craft
as Ships/Vessels .............................................................................................30
A. Reviewing the State of the Art ...........................................................31
B. What Constitutes a Ship/Vessel under International
Law of the Sea? .....................................................................................32
viii Contents
C. What Constitutes a Ship/Vessel Under the LOSC? .........................35
D. Applying the General Rule on Treaty Interpretation
to the Terms Ship/Vessel as Contained in the LOSC ......................38
IV. The Entitlement of Vessels to Navigational Rights and Freedoms .........40
A. Internal Waters .....................................................................................40
B. Territorial Sea .......................................................................................42
C. Straits .....................................................................................................44
D. EEZ/High Seas .....................................................................................45
V. Flag State Jurisdiction ..................................................................................46
A. The Genuine Link Requirement ........................................................46
B. The Impact of a Master, Officers and Crew Not Being
on Board a Ship on a Flag State’s Ability to Perform
its Obligations ......................................................................................48
C. Rendering Assistance at Sea ...............................................................51
VI. Charting the Way Forward .........................................................................53
A. International Adjudication of Disputes Concerning
Autonomous Maritime Craft .............................................................55
B. Reading the Language of the LOSC Teleologically .........................55
C. Amending the Existing Regime, Creating a New One or
Involving the IMO – Scouring the Field for a
Realistic Option ...................................................................................57
VII. Concluding Remarks ...................................................................................59
3. Autonomous Ships and Private Law Issues ���������������������������������������������������������63
Professors Barış Soyer and Andrew Tettenborn
I. Changes to Existing Regimes ......................................................................64
A. Liability for Negligent Navigation (Collisions) ...............................64
B. Salvage ...................................................................................................66
C. Arrest .....................................................................................................69
D. Limitation of Liability .........................................................................70
E. Wreck Removal ....................................................................................71
II. Reach of Particular Regimes: Definition of the Vessels to
Which they Apply ........................................................................................72
A. Negligent Navigation (Collisions) .....................................................72
B. Salvage ...................................................................................................73
C. Pollution ................................................................................................74
D. Wreck Removal ....................................................................................75
E. Limitation of Liability .........................................................................76
F. Arrest .....................................................................................................76
G. Strict Liability under the Harbours, Docks and Piers
Clauses Act 1847 ..................................................................................77
III. Concluding Thoughts ..................................................................................78
Contents ix
4. Unmanned Vessels and International Conventions for the Carriage
of Goods by Sea ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������81
Professor Simon Baughen
I. International Liability Conventions
for the Carriage of Goods by Sea ...............................................................82
A. The Hague and Hague-Visby Rules ...................................................82
B. The Hamburg Rules 1978 ...................................................................90
C. The Rotterdam Rules 2008 .................................................................91
D. Title to Sue: The Carriage of Goods by Sea Act 1992 .....................92
E. General Average ...................................................................................93
II. Charterparties ...............................................................................................93
A. Demise Charters: Barecon 2001 ........................................................94
B. Time Charters: NYPE 2015 ................................................................95
C. Voyage Charters: GENCON 1994 .....................................................97
III. Conclusion ....................................................................................................98
PART II
MASS: NEW LEGAL ISSUES EMERGING AND INSURANCE
5. Cyber Risks, Autonomous Operations and Risk Perceptions:
Is a New Liability Paradigm Required? �������������������������������������������������������������101
Associate Professor George Leloudas
I. Changing Physical World ..........................................................................101
II. The Relevance of Cyber Risks Management for
Shipping Operations ..................................................................................104
III. The Impact of Cyber Risks on International Conventions ...................108
A. Passenger Liability under the 2002 Athens Convention ..............108
B. Cyberworthiness and Contracts of Carriage of Goods ................110
IV. Autonomous Operations and Cyber Risks .............................................112
V. Time to Consider the Liability Paradigm? ..............................................115
VI. Conclusion ..................................................................................................116
6. Product Liability: Autonomous Ships ���������������������������������������������������������������119
Associate Professor Roderick Bagshaw
I. Personal Injuries .........................................................................................121
A. Product ................................................................................................122
B. Producer .............................................................................................125
C. Defendants Other than the Producer .............................................125
D. Defect ..................................................................................................126
E. Development Risk .............................................................................131
II. Physical Damage to External Commercial Property, Such as
a Different Vessel ........................................................................................133
A. Duty of Care .......................................................................................133
B. Fault .....................................................................................................134
