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PENGUIN CLASSICS
EICHMANN IN JERUSALEM
HANNAH ARENDT was born in Hanover, Germany, in 1906. She studied
at the Universities of Marburg and Freiburg and received her doctorate
in philosphy at the University of Heidelberg, where she studied under
Karl Jaspers. In 1933 she fled from Germany and went to France,
where she worked for the immigration of Jewish refugee children into
Palestine. In 1941 she went to the United States and became an Amer
ican citizen ten years later.
She was a research director of the Conference on Jewish Relations,
chief editor of Schocken Books, executive director of Jewish Cultural
Reconstruction in New York City, a visiting professor at several uni
versities, including California, Princeton, Columbia, and Chicago and
university professor at the graduate Faculty of the New School for So
cial Research. She was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1952
and won the annual Arts and Letters Grant of the National Institute of
Arts and Letters in I 954.
Hannah Arendt's books include The Origins of Totalitariansim,
Crisis in the Republic, Men in Dark Times, Between Past and Future:
Eight Exercizes in Political Thought, and Eichmann in Jerusalem: A
Report on the Banality of Evil. She also edited two volumes of Karl
Jaspers's The Great Philosophers. Hannah Arendt died in December
1975·
AMOS ELON was born in Vienna, Austria, and has spent most of his
adult life in Jerusalem. A frequent essayist, lecturer, and critic who is
well known for his articles in The New Yorker and The New York Re
view of Books, he is the author of such bestselling works as The Is
raelis, Flight into Egypt, Founder, Herzel, and most recently The Pity
of It All: A Portrait of the German-Jewish Epoch.
HANN AH ARENDT
Eichmann in Jerusalem
A REPORT ON THE BANALITY OF EVIL
Introduction by AMOS ELON
PENGUIN BOOKS
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Introduction 11
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THE EXCOMMUNICATION fj
!I
OF HANNAH AR.ENDT
In December 1966, Isaiah Berlin, the prominent philosopher and I
historian of ideas, was the guest of his friend, Edmund Wilson, the
well-known American man of letters. An entry in Wilson's diary
mentions an argument between the two men. Berlin "gets violent,
sometimes irrational prejudice against people," Wilson noted, "for :I1·~'. (/)
example [against] Hannah Arendt, although he has never read her ::1 I.~.
book about Eichmann." In a memoir in the Yale Review in 1987,
l~
Berlin made exactly the same charge against Wilson and elaborated
upon this in a 1991 interview with the editor of Wilson's diary.1 We ,, ~
I. Y.
don't know the outcome of this quarrel. One thing we do know: ~ ,,1I ,0
more than three years after the publication of Hannah Arendt's Ii: I... .
... _.
Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil first
appeared in print, the civil war it had launched among intellectuals .... ,
in the United States and in Europe was still seething. Describing the
~·"·'
debate that raged through his own and other families in New York, I\~•
Anthony Grafton later wrote that no subject had fascinated and ~ ;:,.,
l•,
aroused such concern and serious discussion as the series of articles
0 h
Hannah Arendt had published in The New Yorker about the Eich
mann trial, and the book that grew out of them. Three years after the
publication of the book, people were still bitterly divided over it. No
book within living memory had elicited similar passions. A kind of
excommunication seemed to have been imposed on the author by
the Jewish establishment in America. The controversy has never
really been settled. Such controversi~s often die down, simmer,
and then erupt again. It is perhaps no accident that at this time of a
highly controversial war in Iraq, Arendt's books are still widely
read and that, even though close to 300,000 copies of her book on
viii INTRODUCTION
Eichmann alone have so far been sold, this new edition is now pub
lished by Penguin.
Eichmann in Jerusalem continues to attract new readers and
interpreters in Europe, too. In Israel, where the Holocaust was
long seen as simply the culmination of a long unbroken line of
anti-Semitism, from pharaoh and Nebuchadnezzar to Hitler and
Arafat-David Ben-Gurion, the architect of the 1960 show trial
wanted it that way-the growing interest among young people in
this book suggests a search for a different view. A new Hebrew
translation was recently published to considerable acclaim. In the
past, the difficulty of many Israelis to accept Arendt's book ran par
allel to another difficulty-foreseen by Arendt early on-the diffi
culty of confronting, morally and politically, the plight of the
dispossessed Palestinians. The Palestinians bore no responsibility
for the collapse of civilization in Europe but ended up being pun
ished for it.
In Europe, the collapse of communist totalitarianism contri
buted to the renewed interest in Arendt's work. Interest was further
kindled by the publication, in the past several years, of Arendt's
voluminous correspondence with Karl Jaspers, Mary McCarthy,
Hermann Broch, Kurt Blumenfeld, Martin Heidegger, and her
husband Heinrich Blucher.2 All bear witness to a rare capacity for
friendship, intellectual and affectionate. Arendt's correspondence
with Blucher is the record also of the intense, lifelong conver
sation of a marriage that for two hunted fugitives was a safe haven
in dark times. "It still seems to me unbelievable, that I could
achieve both a great love, and a sense of identity with my own per
son," she wrote Blucher in 1937 in what is one of the most remark
able love letters of the twentieth century. "And yet I achieved the
one only since I also have the other. I also now finally know what
happiness is." ·
The letters shed a fascinating light on her thinking, and on some
of the intimate feelings that went into the making of Eichmann in
Jerusalem. "You were the only reader to understand what otherwise
I have never admitted," she wrote Mary McCarthy, "namely, that I
wrote this book in a curious state of euphoria." Like Arendt's biog
raphy Rachel Varnhagen: The Life of a Jewish Woman, written
before her emigration to the United States, Eichmann in Jerusalem
"
i
INTRODUCTION ix
was an intensely personal work. The writing helped give her relief
from a heavy burden. As she wrote Mary McCarthy, it was a "cura
posterior," the delayed cure of a pain that weighed upon her as a
Jew, a former Zionist, and a former German.3
The main thesis of Eichmann in Jerusalem was summed up (not
very felicitously) in its subtitle. It is odd, and sometimes mind
boggling to follow the overheated debates of four decades ago. Irv
ing Howe claimed in his memoirs that the polemic in America
was partly due to feelings of guilt, pervasive, and unmanageable
);
yet seldom (until then) emerging into daylight. For this reason, f
Howe thought, something good came out of the confrontation with
Arendt.
1.
Some of the accusations voiced against the style and tone of the
first version of her book, as published in The New Yorker, were well
founded and were excised in the book, e.g. her description of Leo
Baeck as the Jewish "Fuhrer"; others were patently false. For exam-
, pie, it was claimed that Arendt had "exonerated" Eichmann but
"condemned the Jews." She had done nothing of the sort. Nor had II
she assaulted the entire court proceeding, as was frequently claimed;
she only attacked the melodramatic rhetoric of the state prosecutor.
She supported the death sentence as meted out by the court but ...
'
would have preferred a differently formulated verdict. Contrary to ,~, ~
frequent accusations, she never questioned the legitimacy of a trial I~ . "" "'
in Israel by Israeli judges. Nor did she, as was frequently main ~·
')~
tained, make the victims responsible for their slaughter "by their
failure to resist." In fact, she bitterly attacked the state prosecutor "'?
1:-t.,
who had dared make such a heartless claim. Still, this accusation
even found its way into the Encyclopedia Judaica.4 In a similar vein
' l
she was falsely accused of having claimed that Eichmann was an I
enthusiastic convert to "Zionism" and even to "Judaism." Hand-me
downs from one critic to another drew on alleged references in the
book which no one seemed to have checked. The argument was by
no means restricted to academic circles but exercised young and old,
historians, philosophers, journalists, as in the case of Grafton's
father; priests of several faiths; atheists; community functionaries;
and professional propagandists. The attacks were often intensely
personal. Many published reviews were serious, meticulously docu
mented, fair and well-reasoned; others were clannish, full of per-
x INTRODUCTION
sonal invective, and of a surprisingly hackneyed intellectual level of
mean personal innuendo. The book undoubtedly seems less contro
versial now than forty years ago as new generations of scholars take
a fresh, less partisan look also on Arendt's other writings on Jewish
history, Israel, and Zionism.
Eichmann in Jerusalem is best read today in conjunction with
these other essays. Most were published long before Eichmann in
publications (some of them now defunct) like Menorah Journal, the
New York German-language refugee weekly Aufbau, the Review of
Politics, the Jewish Frontier, and Jewish Social Studies.5 They spell
out a conviction (which in Eichmann is for the most part only
implied) that like other nineteenth-century nationalisms, Zionism
had already outlived the conditions from which it emerged and ran
the risk of becoming, as Arendt once put it, a "living ghost amid the
ruins of our times."6 A decade or so earlier, she had still been an
ardent disciple of the German Zionist leader Kurt Blumenfeld (the
father of "post-assimilationist Zionism"), an advocate of con:pro
mise with the Palestinians, either territorial or through establishing
a joint, secular binational state. At the time of writing Eichmann in
Jerusalem she had all but despaired of this and bleakly foresaw de
cades of war and bloody Palestinian-Israeli clashes. In the 1930s,
she anticipated her criticism in Eichmann of the ghetto Judenrate by
opposing the Transfer of Goods Agreement between the Zionists
and the Nazis, an agreement that enabled German Jews to transfer
some of their frozen assets to Palestine at a highly punitive
exchange rate but ran counter to an attempted worldwide Jewish
boycott of German goods. The Zionists, for whom emigration to
Palestine was the overwhelmingly important priority, justified this
violation as a "dialectical necessity."
By this time, Arendt had little patience left for all Weltanschau
ungen. She became more and more disillusioned with official Zion
ist policy in Palestine because of its failure to achieve a peaceful
modus vivendi with the Arab population. She foresaw the spread of
religious and nationalist fundamentalism among Israelis. These
warnings seemed at the time as provocative as her book on the Eich
mann trial. She argued on both moral and pragmatic grounds, insist
ing that Israelis must share power and/or territory with Palestinian
Arabs. In retrospect, her warnings displayed considerable foresight.
---.• --
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INTRODUCTION xi
Today's readers may be more willing to accept both her essays and
her book on Eichmann on their merits.
This was certainly not the case when Eichmann first came out.
Most Jewish readers and many others were outraged. Friendships
broke over it. Not long before, Israeli diplomats had successfully
convinced the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai Brith that criti
cism of Zionism or Israel was a form of anti-Semitism. Some of
the published attacks on Arendt's book are astonishing in their
unbridled vehemence. In Israel the reaction was more complicated
and the criticism was muted compared to the reaction in America.
Outrage was much less pronounced perhaps because on a first
reading, Arendt's critique of Jewish communal leaders in Nazi
occupied Europe appeared to confirm Zionist cliche descriptions '! !
of "diaspora Jews" as servile, passive lambs who had meekly gone
to the slaughter.
Several of Arendt's critics have since expressed some regret at
their past fervor. Arendt was already dead when such apologies
were first heard. Arendt subscribed to no isms and mistrusted
sweeping theories. Her intuitions on the nature of political evil may
find more sympathetic ears these days than when the book was first
published. Evil, as she saw it, need not be committed only by
demonic monsters but-with disastrous effect-by morons and
imbeciles as well, especially if, as we see in our own day, their
deeds are sanctioned by religious authority. With her disregard of
conventional scholarship and academic norms, she remains a stimu
lating intellectual presence. Thirty or forty years ago the mixture of
social analysis, journalism, philosophical reflections, psychology,
literary allusion, and anecdote found in the best of her work exas
perated and annoyed critics. Today, it fascinates and appeals.
2.
Arendt went to Jerusalem in 1961 as a reporter for The New Yorker.
The idea was not The New Yorker's but her own. She felt she simply
had to attend the trial, she owed it to herself as a social critic, dis
placed person, witness, and survivor. She had never seen a Nazi
butcher like Eichmann, she wrote to the Rockefeller Foundation,
xii INTRODUCTION
"and this was probably [her] only chance." To attend this trial was
an obligation she owed her past. She was interested, as she put it, in
understanding Eichmann's mind (if he had one) and, through the
testimonies at the trial, to explore "the totality of the moral collapse
the Nazis caused in respectable European society."
The result, as it first came out in The New Yorker and later in
expanded form in the book, was largely the report of a trial, an
attempt to examine the extent to which the court, confronted with a
crime it could not find in the law books, succeeded in fulfilling the
demands of justice. The book combines philosophy and day-to-day
observation and is reminiscent, not only in its suggestive style but in
its sarcasms and ironies, of Karl Marx's Eighteenth Brumaire of
Napoleon III.
The resultant storm broke out mainly because of Arendt's por
trait of Eichmann as a diligent yet "banal" bureaucratic criminal.
(The term "banality" actually appears only on the last page but is
implicit throughout the entire book.) Eichmann's mediocrjty and
insipid character struck Arendt on her first day in court. Her initial
reaction, expressed in letters to Jaspers, McCarthy, and Blucher,
was impressionistic. He isn't even sinister, she wrote (Arendt used
the common German term unheimlich, which can also be trans
lated as "uncanny"). He was like a "ghost in a spiritualist sauce."
What was more, he had a cold and was sneezing inside his bullet
proof glass cage.
She ought to have known better. Hitler would not have cut a bet
ter figure under the circumstances. Out of power, most tyrants and
serial murderers seem pathetic or ordinary, harmless, or even piti
ful, as Saddam Hussein did coming out of his rathole with an
unkempt beard. Was she perhaps, at this early stage, a victim of
what might be called the Fallacy of Physiognomy? We all succumb
to it at times. Arendt was interested not only in physiognomy but
also in graphology. The "science" of physiognomy was a popular
intellectual pastime during her youth in Germany. (Her teacher
Martin Heidegger, according to Karl Jaspers, imperiously dis
missed Jaspers's terror at watching a man like Hitler seeking to be
Germany's chancellor, with the exclamation "Just look at his
hands!") A few days into the trial, however, Arendt consciously
moved away from exteriors. "[Eichmann] is actually stupid," she
INTRODUCTION xiii
wrote Jaspers, after listening to one of Eichmann's exhortations
"but then, somehow, he is not" (Er ist eigentlich dumm aber auch
irgendwie nicht). Her private letters from Jerusalem enable us to
trace the slow development of her thesis. She plowed through the
3,000-page transcript of Eichmann's pretrial interrogation by the
Israeli police captain Avner Less and gradually came to think that it
was mostly, as she first put it, a kind of brainlessness7 on Eich
mann's part that had predisposed him to becoming the faceless
bureaucrat of death and one of the worst criminals of all time. She
emphasized Eichmann's moral and intellectual shallowness, his
inner void. He was probably not lying when he told Less that he
could never be a doctor because he could not bear the sight of
blood.
She concluded that Eichmann's inability to speak coherently in
t tf)
court was connected with his incapacity to think, or to think from
another person's point of view. His shallowness was by no means 1.I~
identical with stupidity. He personified neither hatred or madness . 1;~
nor an insatiable thirst for blood, but something far worse, the face . ~
less nature of Nazi evil itself, within a closed system run by patho 1••
logical gangsters, aimed at dismantling the human personality of its .· l~f
..
victims. The Nazis had succeeded in turning the legal order on its
1
head, making the wrong and the malevolent the foundation of a ....
'
new "righteousness." In the Third Reich evil lost its distinctive
••1
characteristic by which most people had until then recognized it.
~>
The Nazis redefined it as a civil norm. Conventional goodness
became a mere temptation which most Germans were fast learning I·"··~
to resist. Within this upside-down world Eichmann (perhaps like '
Pol Pot four decades later) seemed not to have been aware of hav
I
ing done evil. In matters of elementary morality, Arendt warned,
what had been thought of as decent instincts were no longer to be
taken for granted.
In The Origins of Totalitarianism she still held on to a Kantian
notion of radical evil, the evil that, under the Nazis, corrupted the
basis of moral law, exploded legal categories, and defied human
judgment. In Eichmann in Jerusalem, and in the bitter controversies
Ii
about it that followed, she insisted that only good had any depth.
Good can be radical; evil can never be radical, it can only be 'iII
extreme, for it possesses neither depth nor any demonic dimension I
xiv INTRODUCTION
yet-and this is its horror!-it can spread like a fungus over the sur
face of the earth and lay waste the entire world. Evil comes from a
failure to think. It defies tho!Jght for as soon as thought tries to
engage itself with evil and examine the premises and principles
from which it originates, it is frustrated because it finds nothing
there. That is the banality of evil.
Eichmann was ambitious and eager to rise in the ranks, but he
would not have killed his superior to inherit his job. Nor did he dis
play any distinctive thought of his own. It was his "banality" that
predisposed him to become one of the greatest criminals of his
time, Arendt claimed. She complained that while in the trial Eich
mann had been accused, absurdly she thought, of having been the
very architect, the brain, behind the Holocaust, his essential brain
lessness was never even brought up or discussed. It wasn't dis
cussed partly because it was so hard to grasp. But it also was left
unmentioned because Eichmann's trial was a show trial, staged by
Ben-Gurion at least partly for political reasons to prove conclu
sively that the Holocaust had simply been the largest anti-Semitic
pogrom in history.
Eichmann's alleged banality was the main reason the book pro
voked such a storm. Most people still assumed that murder was
committed by monsters or demons. Another reason was a brief
comment on the Nazi-appointed "Jewish Councils" (Judenrate).
Unable to see through the Nazi scheme, acting in the vain hope that
they were serving the best interests of local Jews, the distinguished
notables of the Judenrate had inadvertently become instruments of
Nazi determination to eliminate a maximum number of Jews with a
minimum of administrative effort and cost. Neither of the two
points, of course, was new. Dostoevsky would not have regarded
Arendt's "banality of evil" as a cheap catchword, as Gershom
Scholem did in an open letter to Arendt accusing her of heartless
ness. When the devil visits Karamazov, he turns out to be a shabby,
stupid, and vulgar lout. Before Arendt, others had emphasized the
discrepancy between the personal mediocrity of monsters like
Hitler or Stalin and the horrendous evil they unleashed on the
world. Nearly everybody who attended the trials of mass killers
after the war, some of them respected doctors and pharmacists,
came away with the disconcerting impression that the killers looked
Description:Eight Exercizes in Political Thought, and Eichmann in Jerusalem: A. Report on the Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil first.
