Arctic Traditional Knowledge and Wisdom: Changes in the North American Arctic

80 Pages·2017·9.76 MB·English

CAFF Assessment Series Report No. 14
April 2017
Arctic Traditional Knowledge and Wisdom:
Changes in the North American Arctic
Perspectives from Arctic Athabascan Council,
Aleut International Association, Gwich’in Council
International, and published accounts.
ARCTIC COUNCIL
Acknowledgements
CAFF Designated Agencies:
• Norwegian Environment Agency, Trondheim, Norway
• Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, Canada
• Faroese Museum of Natural History, Tórshavn, Faroe Islands (Kingdom of Denmark)
• Finnish Ministry of the Environment, Helsinki, Finland
• Icelandic Institute of Natural History, Reykjavik, Iceland
• Ministry of Independence, Nature, Environment and Agriculture, Greenland
• Russian Federation Ministry of Natural Resources, Moscow, Russia
• Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, Stockholm, Sweden
• United States Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska
CAFF Permanent Participant Organizations:
• Aleut International Association (AIA)
• Arctic Athabaskan Council (AAC)
• Gwich’in Council International (GCI)
• Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC)
• Russian Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON)
• Saami Council
This publication should be cited as: Merculieff, I., Abel, P., Allen, Chief J., Beaumier, M., Bélanger, V., Burelle, M.-A.,
Dickson Jr., T., Ebert, M., Henri, D., Legat, A., Larocque, B., Netro, L., and Zoe-Chocolate, C. 2017. Arctic Traditional
Knowledge and Wisdom: Changes in the North American Arctic, Perspectives from Arctic Athabascan Council, Aleut
International Association, Gwich’in Council International, and published accounts. Conservation of Arctic Flora and
Fauna International Secretariat, Akureyri, Iceland. ISBN 978-9935-431-61-5.
Cover photo: Preparing salmon for the smoker. Photo: USFWS, Alaska/Flickr.com
Back cover: Aleut Girl (Jada Bear) of King Cove halibut fishing. Photo: Nadine Kochuten, 2012
Design and layout: Courtney Price
For more information please contact:
CAFF International Secretariat
Borgir, Nordurslod
600 Akureyri, Iceland
Phone: [phone]
Fax: [phone]
Email: [email protected]
Internet: www.caff.is
Note: The views expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect
the views of the Arctic Council, its working groups or subsidiary
bodies; many of the statements and statistics cited in this report are
the recollection or perspective of the interviewees.
CAFF Designated Area
Arctic Traditional
Knowledge and Wisdom:
Changes in the North
American Arctic
Perspectives from the Arctic Athabascan
Council, Aleut International Association,
Gwich’in Council International, and
published accounts.
Lead Author
Ilarion (Larry) Merculieff.
Contributing Authors
Peter Abel, Chief James Allen, Maude Beaumier, Véronique
Bélanger, Marie-Andrée Burelle, Tommy Dickson Jr., Dr. Mark
Ebert, Dominique Henri, Dr. Allice Legat, Bridget Larocque,
Lorraine Netro, Camilia Zoe-Chocolate.
Technical support and editing
Maryann Fidel at the Aleut International Association
Table of Contents
Foreword by the Lead Author ...........................................................................................................6
Preface .....................................................................................................................................9
1.0 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................10
1.1 The essence and substance of Traditional Knowledge and Wisdom regarding biodiversity .......11
2.0 Multiple ways of relating to the land, environment, and biodiversity ..................................15
2.1 The land, places, and names: Same words, different meanings ..............................................................17
2.1.1 Place names reflect Arctic Indigenous relationships to nature .................................................18
2.2 Indigenous Arctic languages and their relationship to nature ...............................................................20
2.3 “Watching” from the knowledge and understanding of Arctic Indigenous Peoples .......................21
2.3.1 A traditional upbringing ..........................................................................................................................22
3.0 Applying Arctic indigenous ways of knowing to understand biodiversity change ............27
3.1 Knowing biodiversity and change from the perspective of harvesting plants ................................27
3.2 Harvesters watching change after a forest fire .............................................................................................28
3.3 Knowing biodiversity change through harvesting marine organisms .................................................29
3.4 Knowing biodiversity change through harvesting terrestrial animals ................................................33
3.5 Knowing biodiversity through history .............................................................................................................34
3.6 Knowing biodiversity through the observation of many changes ........................................................34
3.7 Knowing biodiversity through a regional perspective (Harvesting in the Bering Sea Region) ..36
3.7.1 The Bering Sea ............................................................................................................................................36
3.7.2 Who are the Indigenous Peoples of the Bering Sea? ....................................................................37
3.7.3 Harvest in the Bering Sea .......................................................................................................................38
3.7.4 The challenges to traditional harvest in the Bering Sea ..............................................................40
4.0 Applying Arctic Indigenous ways to understand and manage biodiversity change ...........43
Caribou on the tundra.
Photo: Valerijs Novickis/Shutterstock.com
5.0 Examples of co-application of Traditional Knowledge and science in the Canadian Arctic 49
5.1 Peary Caribou scientific assessment – co-application of ITK to habitat and population
modeling .....................................................................................................................................................................49
5.1.1 Consultation activities with Northern communities ....................................................................50
5.1.2 ITK contributions to the Peary caribou science assessment .......................................................50
5.2 Polar bear research program ................................................................................................................................50
5.3 Eastern Arctic sea duck, seabird, and shorebird research program .......................................................52
5.3.1 Marine habitat use of thick-billed murres at Digges Island ........................................................52
5.3.2 East Bay Island migratory bird research .............................................................................................52
5.3.3 Arctic terrestrial birds and ecosystems project ...............................................................................54
5.3.4 Winter ecology of sea ducks in the Belcher Islands .......................................................................54
5.3.5 Hudson Strait common eider and polar bear surveys ..................................................................54
5.3.6 Assessment of the status of ivory gulls and harlequin ducks ....................................................55
6.0 Western science and Traditional Knowledge and Wisdom: challenges and opportunities .56
6.1 Challenges and potential actions for the inclusion of Traditional Knowledge and Wisdom in
research and scientific assessments .......................................................................................................................58
7.0 Key messages for action ............................................................................................................66
8.0 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................67
9.0 Addendums ................................................................................................................................68
Addendum 1: Excerpts from forestry harvest project, CAFN elders interviews .......................................68
Addendum 2: A best practices example .................................................................................................................71
10.0 Contributing Authors ..............................................................................................................73
Reviewers ................................................................................................................................................................75
11.0 References ................................................................................................................................76
6
Foreword by the Lead Author
This report, written in large part by Arctic indigenous To begin to understand the importance of Arctic
peoples, acknowledges the importance of including peoples’ knowledge and wisdom is to recognize it is
Arctic indigenous peoples’ Traditional Knowledge and based on their successful existence for thousands of
Wisdom (TK&W) in scientific efforts to fully understand years in some of the harshest conditions and most
the nature of biodiversity and biodiversity changes in isolated communities on Earth. Such success is due to
the North. It argues that without this input included in their close connection with nature and their intimate,
a systemic way throughout the scientific community we year-round attention and adaptation to changes
will never know the real scope of shifts occurring within occurring on the surrounding lands, in the waters, the
the myriad of diverse northern biological and ecological weather, and among the wildlife upon which their lives
systems. have always depended. Importantly, Arctic indigenous
peoples have understood the whys of change as they
It should be noted that the authors are individuals learned that all things are interconnected and so
rather than spokespeople for all Arctic indigenous could connect biodiversity changes to other events
peoples. Frequently, as stakeholders, Arctic indigenous happening around them. From this perspective some
peoples are expected to speak on behalf of all the would say they were the original ecosystem scientists
peoples without consideration that each culture is with a body of knowledge, i.e. data and information,
distinctly different, and even within the cultures there and wisdom, i.e. context, passed down through
are differences. That being said, the authors speak of thousands of generations.
issues, experiences, and observations that generally are
common between Arctic indigenous peoples. A Tlingit Here the reader will hear directly from indigenous
perspective on the issues was added even though peoples of the Arctic—Unangan, Gwich’in/Gwitchin,
they are not represented by a Permanent Participant Athabaskan, and for comparison, Tlingit of sub-Arctic
organization and are not considered to reside in the areas—speaking of this biodiversity and ecosystem
Arctic as defined by the United States. This was done knowledge and of elder’s wisdom, of changes in the
as a demonstration that northern indigenous ways are past and present: changes in tastes, scents, sounds
similar. observed, watched, and understood through all the
local, regional, historical, and current interdependent
Woman preparing salmon for drying.
Photo: Larry Ilarion Merculieff
7
relationships of life in the North. The reader is urged to -- are critical. This is done through many methods from
consider this ‘different’ way of knowing and, more than learning how to fish and hunt, preparing the food for
that, to acknowledge its worth and to include such vast storage through the winter, to storytelling and making
reserves of knowledge in society’s search to record and art such as intricately carved ivory scenes or wooden
understand biodiversity and biodiversity changes. ceremonial masks.
This is where Arctic indigenous authors discuss wisdom This report details these facts as told by a variety of
and its intrinsic role in understanding shifts, mutations, North American Arctic indigenous peoples. It also
fluctuations relating to the land, plants and animals explores the importance of place names and how they
around them, their communities, and their subsistence often reflect far more complex information than just
hunting and fishing areas. Wisdom is never a done the physical designation of a place; the name may also
thing. Instead it is a fluid river with many tributaries communicate Arctic indigenous peoples’ reverence for
adding to its body of water without ever erasing the and connection to the area being described as well as
core river. Wisdom is an active resource that greatly historic, observed environmental changes.
contributes to, and is essential to, fully understanding
what, and why, life in the North is undergoing dramatic This report addresses Arctic indigenous peoples’ many
changes. That the North is the proverbial canary in the ‘ways of knowing’ the biodiversity that surrounds
coal mine called climate change may be a cliché but it them and of the changes happening in their habitat
does not belie its truth or the cascading consequences. and the ecosystem of which they are a part. Much of
this revolves around the traditional harvesting of fish,
Few people are more aware of their immediate marine mammals, waterfowl and land animals, as well
surrounding and the wildlife they depend on than as preparing them for eating, smoking, and for winter
Arctic indigenous peoples. Even the faintest changes to storage. Working so closely, season after season, with
those surroundings and wildlife are noted. the same creatures, community members alert others
to changes – such as worms appearing in salmon, or
This report reaches into the multifaceted nature of taste differences in boreal caribou, or declining moose
Arctic TK&W, describing both the breadth and nuanced populations in certain regions. Even the harvesting
characteristics of what many regard as specific of plants plays a role: for those involved in reindeer
methodologies and pathways of understanding husbandry, if there are no moss berries in the fall as
biodiversity and biodiversity changes. With thousands is usual in certain areas, it tells community members
of generations passing down knowledge and wisdom that the reindeer herd has grown too big, eaten all the
in oral form, and through their own experiences, rituals, lichen, and moved on to moss berries, which are not
songs, dances, art, and in other ways, Arctic indigenous a preferred food of reindeer unless they are starving.
peoples know that everything is interconnected. They must cull the herd and then bring in ‘artificial’ food
Everything is interconnected; from the heart of the to keep the remaining deer alive. Or kill the rest of the
hunter and his intention, to the salmon’s struggle to herd and allow the lichen, berries, and other sources of
reach its spawning ground; to the bear’s poor eyesight food to recover. Either decision has consequences: the
but excellent sense of smell; to the consciousness of first will not only cost money but community members
the river shore and stones adjusting to higher levels may not like the change in taste of reindeer fed an
of incoming freshwater, as moody glaciers melt under ‘artificial’ diet; the second will deprive the community
the hot sun. Arctic indigenous peoples’ have this acute of this important traditional food for several years and
awareness of the interconnectedness, as they are raised allow caribou and other unwelcome foragers to move
by a traditional community, by the elder’s story-telling, in, affecting the ecological balance of the region, and
and as they are taught to learn with all of their senses eventually changing its biodiversity and that of areas
– from hearing, seeing, and tasting to gut response, from which the animals have moved. And there is this:
intuition, and their own ‘heart sense’. Traditional the deep shame of the men charged with monitoring
Knowledge & Wisdom is no mere accumulation of facts, the herd. They will suffer, and so will their families—
events, or a tribe’s historical adaptation to changes; it is not because of any community reaction, but because
inextricably interwoven with wisdom, spirituality, and they were raised with the belief that one’s relationship
trust – not just an intellectual trust but one that is felt with the land, sea, marine life and wildlife is what is
throughout the entire body. most important in life. The men have not respected the
reindeer, the lichen, the berries, or their community—
Of the many indigenous peoples of the Arctic and everything that sustains them. For those relying on
their many cultures, each profoundly different from wild caribou, there are often similar consequences of
another, certain core traditions and practices can be not providing their families with a huge component
found in all their communities. Passing on ways of of their traditional diet. Caribou have a difficult time
doing -- the many traditional activities that keep their reaching customary foraging areas as the freeze/thaw
culture alive and their communities healthy on all levels cycles change, and thus are more difficult for hunters
8
to locate. This also affects the caribou population The last section of this report contains key suggestions
because of two climate change factors; first, being for resource managers, scientists and other decision-
unable to reach their traditional calving grounds at makers and stakeholders on what the lead author
the appropriate time when spring comes much earlier of this report, based on his extensive experience in
than in previous years and the calves are not ready to dealing with these matters, believes must be done
be born; and second, a massive explosion in the Arctic to achieve true partnerships in trying to understand
mosquito population with swarms of these insects biodiversity and biodiversity changes in the North.
intense enough to force caribou and their young to
move from their long established spring and summer This report is a call to action for both scientists and
foraging and calving grounds as well as alter their usual Arctic indigenous peoples to work together to identify
migration routes. These changes, in turn, affect and/ and understand the changes in biological diversity
or cause many other biodiversity changes within the occurring in the North. Together they must build
caribou’s annual, ‘usual’ wide range. bridges between worlds. It will not be easy. How, for
example, to translate the Arctic TK&W of working at
Indigenous Arctic peoples have noticed many an Earth-based pace, i.e., knowing that one must be
changes under the warmer weather patterns they present and slowdown in order to listen and learn
are experiencing, changes that threaten indigenous from their environment, to those whose funding often
ways that have survived for millennia. Earlier and allows them to be out in the field for only six to twelve
longer periods of warmer weather has allowed weeks of the year? How to familiarize Arctic indigenous
bug infestations to move north and destroy trees, peoples with the single-species and ecosystem kinds
different birds and other animals to move into new of research currently used by scientists? We are about
territories, just as marine life—from bowhead whales to to level the playing field; to cross over into each
zooplankton—follow the receding icepack north. other’s worlds so that trust is established, involvement
encouraged, contributions appreciated, and so that
Section 4 of this report looks at the urgent concerns there is recognition of the common goals across these
and ways some indigenous peoples are trying to frontiers.
manage these biological changes. Section 5 reveals
what can happen when a research branch of a Canadian Ilarion (Larry) Merculieff
institution works with Arctic peoples to assess different
aspects of biodiversity in their region.
Traditional peoples of the Arctic
and western scientists share a
common concern: an urgent
need to understand the forces
driving such extraordinary
changes. One of the greatest
challenges, ironically, is not that
we have too little understanding
of the science involved, but
that we have yet to resolve the
human-to-human component;
the Arctic indigenous peoples
to the western scientists in order
to get the maximum amount of
information to guide decisions.
Section 6 of the report explores
this most complicated of
mazes requiring time, patience,
cooperation and the willingness
of all parties in forging the only
worthwhile way forward. This
section deals with how Arctic
TK&W can help scientists and
researchers in a number of
ways, and an example of a true
partnership between scientists Aleut Woman (Leanna Bear) of King Cove filleting halibut.
Photo: Nadine Kochuten, 2016
and Arctic traditional peoples.
9
Preface
The nature of this report is unusual in that it discusses hunters, or others with the appropriate knowledge
a process through which most interaction and might say that researchers may have missed additional
consultation with indigenous peoples and other information that could have made the conclusions, and
community members in research, monitoring, and by extension decisions made from those conclusions
assessment takes place, in a town hall meeting, or the better. This is the essence of including traditional and
talking circle, or workshops, all of which mean that local knowledge, they are a different way of knowing
information exchange takes place verbally. So in writing and the earlier and more extensively they are included
about this process, Ilarion Merculieff refers a great deal the better. In my view, Ilarion makes this point very
to individual conversations which have taken place well from the perspective of an indigenous person who
during his lifetime as an Aleut leader. We’ve done our has had many opportunities to observe the two ways
best to show where this is taking place so that it is clear of knowing attempting to work together. AIA is proud
that he is providing his own recollections. We have to to have been involved with this report, and we wish
be able to refer to verbal communications because to thank the many individuals who put a great deal of
that is how this type of knowledge is passed from one work into it, but we especially want to thank Ilarion
person to another. In this report there is sometimes Merculieff for his knowledge and wisdom. We hope that
a tone which could be interpreted as critical, but it’s this report provides a basis for continuing progress in
not critical in the sense that it’s implying that research the inclusion of traditional knowledge and wisdom in
that’s been carried out is wrong, it’s simply saying that the work of the Arctic Council and beyond.
the findings are only correct for a certain time period
and geographic location, and so when findings are Jim Gamble, Executive Director, AIA
presented at a community meeting, some elders or
Belkofski, an abandoned Aleut Village.
Photo: Nadine Kochuten, 2012
10
1.0 Introduction
Arctic Indigenous peoples’ perspectives of fish, wildlife and habitat, and the shared challenges
of biodiversity and the challenges they the peoples of the Arctic face that are the focus of this
face are based on their dependence on report. As this report focuses on the North American
the environment, their values, ways of Arctic, contributions came from AIA, AAC, and GCI. ICC
knowing, and their belief systems. Varied did not nominate authors or directly participate in the
as these ways of knowing, values and belief writing of this report. The Inuit perspectives presented
systems are, the special relevance of Arctic in this document were gathered from previously
Indigenous understanding of the protection published documents.
of biodiversity has been recognized by the
international community and clearly set forth The objective of this report is to advance the
in diverse instruments, most prominently consideration of including Arctic TK&W into the
perhaps, in the UN Convention on Biological decision-making processes to manage fish, wildlife, and
Diversity. habitat. The purpose is to assist resource managers,
scientists, other decision-makers, and stakeholders
The CBD, in article 8 on “In-situ Conservation”, in understanding Arctic indigenous worldviews
specifies the duty of the national parties and their TK&W, and to move the dialogue forward
of the convention to “respect, preserve on synthesizing systems of knowledge in Arctic
and maintain knowledge, innovations, biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. This
and practices of Indigenous and local report also supports the Arctic Council’s emphasis on
communities embodying traditional lifestyles the unique role played by Arctic indigenous peoples
relevant for the conservation and sustainable and their Traditional Knowledge in the Arctic Council
use of biological diversity…” (Arctic Council, 2015) and is consistent with the
“Recommendations for the Integration of Traditional
To the degree that stipulations such as this and Local Knowledge into the work of the Arctic
are implemented, they greatly facilitate Council”, prepared by the Sustainable Development
Arctic Indigenous peoples’ contributions to Working Group and welcomed by the Arctic Council in
the protection of Arctic biodiversity and will 2015.
provide more opportunities for traditional
knowledge to inform the policy making To develop this report, CAFF created a flexible outline,
process (Mustonen & Ford, 2013). literature was then considered (Legat & Ebert, 2014),
and PPs were asked to nominate knowledgeable
This report is a compendium of Arctic indigenous indigenous authors from their regions. Ilarion Merculieff
perspectives and understandings from indigenous was nominated as lead author because of his extensive
authors, and others that work closely with Arctic experience working with Arctic indigenous peoples
indigenous people in government, academics, and and scientists, and his cultural up-bringing and
research, on biodiversity change in the Arctic and knowledge as a tradition bearer. Some of Ilarion’s key
examples of the use of Traditional Knowledge & accomplishments include serving as the director of the
Wisdom (TK&W) in managing fish, wildlife, and habitat. department of public policy and advocacy in the Rural
The indigenous peoples who live in the Arctic, whose Alaska Community Action Program from 2000-2003, led
perspectives and knowledge are discussed here, are a four year effort to gain federal and state recognition
Permanent Participants of the Arctic Council (PPs) and of Alaska Native subsistence rights, and he was the
members of the Council’s biodiversity working group, keynote speaker on indigenous perspectives on climate
the Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF). change at the 2009 World Wilderness Congress and is
The PPs are the Aleut International Association (AIA), the senior advisor to the congress, as well as numerous
Arctic Athabaskan Council (AAC), Gwich’in Council publications about indigenous ways of life and TK&W.
International (GCI), the Inuit Circumpolar Council Literature included ethnographic and linguistic studies,
(ICC), Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of reports produced by the communities, and reviews
the North (RAIPON), and the Saami Council. All have of theoretical essays by social scientists who have
traditions, customs, languages, and practices, which worked with Arctic peoples. Many indigenous authors
are unique and very different from each other, but all, contributed to this report. Their names and biographies
abide by certain common principles. The Arctic peoples are listed under ‘Contributing Authors’.
are people of the heart, the ‘real human beings‘ as
many call themselves in their own language. It is the There are three main parts to this report. Each section
principles they hold in common, how their knowledge identifies whether it was written by the lead author
and wisdom may contribute to better management or a contributing author, and the introductions and