Archaeological Chemistry, Second Edition

638 Pages·2008·11.89 MB·English

by  Zvi Goffer(auth.)

ARCHAEOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY
Second Edition

ARCHAEOLOGICAL
CHEMISTRY
Second Edition
Zvi Goffer, Ph.D.
Retired Senior Scientist
Soreq Nuclear Research Center
Israel
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData:
Goffer, Zvi.
Archaeological chemistry / Zvi Goffer. – 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-471-25288-7 (cloth)
1. Archaeological chemistry. I. Title.
CC79.C5G63 2007
930.1028 – dc22
2005028992
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To the memory of my parents
Rivka and Moshe
CONTENTS
PREFACE xvii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxi
1. MINERALS: Rock and Stone: Pigments, Abrasives,
and Gemstones 1
1.1 The Chemical Elements 1
1.2 Minerals and Mineraloids 6
1.3 Rock and Stone 24
1.4 Study of Archaeological Stone 26
1.5 Chemical Analysis of Archaeological Materials 29
Isotopes in Archaeology 39
1.6 Provenance of Archaeological Materials 42
1.7 Chronology of Archaeological Materials 43
Potassium–Argon Dating 50
Argon–Argon Dating 55
Archaeologically Related Rock and Stone 55
1.8 Pigments 62
White Pigments 67
Black Pigments 68
Red Pigments 72
Yellow Pigments 74
Green Pigments 74
Blue Pigments 75
1.9 Abrasives 75
1.10 Gemstones 76
Cutting and Polishing Gemstones 89
Some Archaeological Gemstones 89
vii
viii CONTENTS
2. LITHICS: Flint and Obsidian 93
2.1 Quartz and Flint 93
2.2 Obsidian 99
Dating Obsidian 102
2.3 Use Wear Analysis 109
3. SAND: Glass, Glaze, and Enamel 111
3.1 Glass, Glaze, and Enamel 112
3.2 Glass 115
Soda Glass 115
Sodalime Glass 118
Potash Glass 119
Lead Glass 119
Colored Glass 120
Opaque Glass 122
3.3 Glassmaking 124
3.4 Ancient Glass Studies 128
Some Special Types of Ancient Glass 130
The Provenance of Glass 132
3.5 The Decay of Glass 134
4. SECONDARY ROCKS: Building Stone, Brick, Cement,
and Mortar 139
4.1 Building Stone 139
Gypsum and Alabaster 140
Limestone and Marble 141
4.2 Cement 142
Mud 144
Bitumen 146
Lime and Gypsum Cements 147
4.3 Study of Ancient Cements 152
5. ORES: Metals and Alloys 153
5.1 Native Metals 158
5.2 Metalliferous Ores 159
5.3 Mining 159
5.4 Ore Dressing 160
5.5 Smelting 160
Smelting Fuel and Metal Reduction 163
5.6 Metal Refining 164
5.7 Alloys 165
CONTENTS ix
5.8 The Metals and Alloys of Antiquity 167
Copper 167
Iron 172
Gold 175
Silver 179
Lead 180
Tin 183
Zinc 185
Mercury 186
Platinum 188
5.9 Deterioration of Metals and Alloys – Corrosion 188
Corrosion of Ancient Metals and Alloys 193
5.10 Studies on Archaeological Metals and Alloys 198
Ancient Metallurgy 200
Arsenical Copper 201
Damascus Steel 203
Granulation and Filigree 204
Coins 206
6. SEDIMENTS AND SOILS 209
6.1 Sediments, Oxygen Isotopes, and Ancient Temperatures 214
6.2 Soil 218
Composition and Properties of Soils 221
Archaeological Soils 226
7. CLAY: Pottery and Other Ceramic Materials 231
7.1 Primary Clay 233
7.2 Secondary Clay 234
7.3 Clay and Ceramic Materials 235
7.4 Ceramic Materials 237
Preceramics 239
Components of Ceramic Materials 240
7.5 Making Ceramics 240
Pottery Kilns 243
The Color of Fired Pottery 245
Glazing 245
7.6 Common Ceramic Materials 246
Terracotta 246
Earthenware 248
Stoneware 249
Porcelain 249
x CONTENTS
7.7 Study of Ancient Pottery 250
Attic Vase Painting 251
Coral Red Attic Pottery 254
Manganese Black Decoration 254
Islamic Stone-Paste 254
Egyptian Faience 255
Firing Conditions of Ancient Pottery 257
The Provenance of Pottery 257
Dating Pottery 260
8. THE BIOSPHERE: Organic and Biological Substances 261
8.1 Living Organisms and Cells 262
8.2 Biological Matter: Organic and Bioinorganic Substances 265
Organic Substances 268
Bioinorganic Substances 270
8.3 Ancient Biological Materials 271
8.4 Dating Organic Materials 272
Radiocarbon Dating 273
9. CARBOHYDRATES: Wood, Gums, and Resins 289
9.1 Wood 293
The Nature of Wood 293
The Composition and Physical Properties of Wood 294
Dendrochronology and Dendroclimatology 296
Dead Wood 299
Burned Wood 300
Archaeological Wood 301
9.2 Gums 301
9.3 Resins 303
Lacquers 306
Incense 306
9.4 Carbohydrates, Isotopes, and Study of Ancient Diets 307
10. LIPIDS: Oils, Fats, and Waxes; Soap 311
10.1 Oils, Fats, and Waxes 311
Oils 313
Fats 315
Waxes 316
10.2 Ancient Oils, Fats, and Waxes 318
10.3 Soap 318
CONTENTS xi
11. PROTEINS: Skin, Leather, and Glue 321
11.1 Animal Skin 328
Skin and Hide 330
Fur 331
Parchment and Vellum 332
11.2 Leather 332
Tanning 333
Aftertanning Processes; Finishing 337
11.3 Glue 337
11.4 Dating Ancient Proteins – Amino Acid Racemization
Dating 338
12. THE NUCLEIC ACIDS: Human Traits; Genetics and Evolution 343
12.1 DNAand RNA 343
DNAAfter Death 348
12.2 The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) 349
12.3 Ancient DNAStudies 352
13. FIBERS:Yarn, Textiles, and Cordage; Writing Materials 353
13.1 Fibers, Textile, and Cordage 353
Vegetable Fibers 356
Animal Fibers 358
Inorganic Fibers 360
13.2 Archaeological Fibers and Fibrous Materials 361
13.3 Writing Materials 362
Papyrus 362
Paper 363
Nonpaper Flat Materials 363
14. DYES AND DYEING 365
14.1 Stains and Staining 365
14.2 The Dyeing Process 367
14.3 Mordants 367
14.4 The Nature of Dyes 367
14.5 Ancient Dyes 371
Blue Dyes 372
Green Dyes 373