Aquatic ecotoxicology : fundamental concepts and methodologies / 1 (1989)

351 Pages·1989·47.45 MB·English

by  Alain Boudou

Aquatic Ecotoxicology:
Fundamental Concepts
and
Methodologies
Volume I
Editors
Alain Boudou, D.Sc. Francis Ribeyre, D.Sc.
Professor Engineer
Laboratory of Fundamental Laboratory of Fundamental
Ecology and Ecotoxicology Ecology and Ecotoxicology
University of Bordeaux I University of Bordeaux I
Talence, France Talence, France
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Aquatic ecotoxicology.
Includes bibliographies and index.
1. Aquatic ecology. 2. Water — Pollution — Toxicology.
3. Water — Pollution — Environmental aspects.
4. Environmental monitoring. I. Boudou, Alain,
1949- . II. Ribeyre, Francis.
QH541.5.W3A68 1989 574.5’263 88-24169
ISBN 0-8493-4828-5 (v. 1)
ISBN 0-8493-4829-3 (v. 2)
A Library of Congress record exists under LC control number: 88024169
Publisher’s Note
The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original copies
may be apparent.
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contact.
ISBN 13: 978-1-315-89076-0 (hbk)
ISBN 13: 978-1-351-06986-1 (ebk)
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FOREWORD
The volumes entitled Aquatic Ecotoxicology: Fundamental Concepts and Methodologies,
edited by A. Boudou and F. Ribeyre, are a welcome addition to the ecotoxicological lit-
erature.
Ecotoxicology is one of the essential disciplines which provide the scientific basis for
environmental protection policy. In the European Community, such a policy has been in
force since 1973. As of June 1987, 57 directives have been adopted and translated into
national law in each of the 12 member states. Thirteen of these pertain exclusively to the
aquatic environment and many more are relevant to it. Indeed, the initial thrust of the
European Community action plan for the environment was directed to the protection of fresh
water, coastal waters, and ground water. A dual approach was adopted, combining the
concept of quality objectives with that of emmission standards. Quite often the scientific
basis for setting water quality objectives was found to be insufficient. Later, the marketing
of new chemicals was regulated in the European Community as well as in the U.S. and
elsewhere. The notification file was to contain certain information on aquatic ecotoxicology,
hence the need to develop a series of simple, reliable tests.
All this spurred the initiation of research programs coordinated by the Commission of the
European Communities and involving many laboratories in the member states as well as the
European Community Joint Research Centre.
Research priorities covered the familiar sequence starting with dispersion in the medium,
transfer, and fate, and health and ecological effects. Particular emphasis was placed on
methodology, concerning the chemical analysis of micropollutants and ecotoxicological
testing.
These topics remain relevant and are discussed in detail in this book by a number of North
American and European authors, including the editors, who have themselves produced
valuable contributions to the field in the last 15 years.
Ecologists and administrators have now come to recognize the inadequacy of simple single
species tests for predicting sublethal effects of harmful substances on the complex environ-
ment. Therefore, the development of more adequate approaches for laboratory, semifield,
and field tests to mimic effects at population, community, and ecosystem levels of biological
organization is subject to ongoing research. This book reviews some of these new concepts
in aquatic ecotoxicology.
Undoubtedly, this two-volume text will be of great use not only to research scientists and
students, but to those who have to prepare regulations to protect the aquatic environment.
Ph. Bourdeau
Commission of the European Communities
Brussels, Belgium
PREFACE
Although its roots can be traced all the way back to the Middle Ages, aquatic ecotoxicology
is only now beginning to emerge as a bona fide scientific discipline. One of the first
environmental issues to attract public attention was the eutrophication of natural waters
which subsequently engendered a water pollution management strategy aimed primarily at
the protection of water for domestic purposes, fisheries resource, agriculture, and industry.
Toxic contaminants in water did not emerge as an environmental issue until the 1970s, and
have since led to the shift in the focus of environmental management towards the conservation
of natural ecosystems for recreational and aesthetic purposes. Ecotoxicology is the direct
outgrowth of this recent interest in the effects of contaminants on whole ecosystems which
have become of primary management concern. Its continuing growth has been assured by
the unprecedented demand for predictive testing occasioned by various legislations pertaining
to Water Quality Criteria, Clean Water Acts, and Water Quality Standards, pretesting and
registration of new pesticides and chemcials, the Environmental Impact Assessments under
the Toxic Substances Control Acts, and many other legislative actions. The increasing use
of ecotoxicological methods in environmental hazard assessment has led to numerous studies
on the ambient levels and speciation of toxic contaminants in water, their accumulation in
the biota, and the functional response of biological species and populations to specific
contaminants. So far, these studies have failed to yield a coherent and consistent picture of
how contaminants affect total aquatic ecosystems.
The close analogy between aquatic ecotoxicology and human medicine has been pointed
out by several researchers (see, in particular, D. J. Rapport, Adv. Environ. Sci. Technol.,
16, 315, 1984). The concept of "ecosystem medicine" indeed embodies the holistic frame-
work for research in the emerging specialty. Thus, aquatic toxicology regards an ecosystem
as a de facto living entity (hence the aphorism "Lake Erie is dead") which is responsive
to stress due to contaminant overload. Numerous case studies suggest that the common
symptoms of ecosystem distress are surprisingly similar and often include an increase in
primary productivity, changes in composition of the biota to favor more opportunistic species,
prevalence of diseases (especially tumors), as well as reductions in species diversity and
size of dominant fauna and flora. These classic distress signs and many more have been
identified in the Great Lakes (see M. Evans, Adv. Environ. Sci. Technol., in press, 1987).
An important challenge to the practitioners of ecosystem medicine must be to relate the
symptoms of ecosystem stress to the causative environmental agent. Advancement in this
area has been particularly hampered by our understanding of ecosystem dynamics, which
is still very primitive. As Dr. J. R. Vallentyne (The Algal Bowl — Lakes and Man,
Miscellaneous Special Publications 22, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Canada, 1974)
aptly observed, "Our knowledge of ecosystems today is equivalent to that of the human
body in the latter part of the 18th century."
We are even less advanced in our understanding of the sequelae of ecosystem distress.
The mammalian response to stress can be characterized by three stages: (1) the alarm reaction,
(2) the stage of resistance where adjustments and accommodations can be made, and (3)
the stage of exhaustion leading ultimately to death. The main objective of ecotoxicology is
to detect pollution-related problems during the reversible stages or before exhaustion occurs.
The earliest symptomology of ecosystem distress may be subtle and transient physiological
or behavioral changes in the sensitive organisms or groups and as such may go undetected.
In the Great Lakes, for example, some of the recognized early warning signs of dysfunctional
changes include (1) diminished mayfly population, (2) elevated contaminant accumulation
in tern and herring gull eggs, and (3) impaired reproductive success of local populations
and/or colonies of piscivorous avian and mammalian species. The reproductive failure may
be brought about through declines in egg production, eggshell thinning, embryo toxicity,
altered parental behavior, congenital abnormalities, biochemical and histopathological dys-
function and aberrant behavior of the recently hatched young, or any number of other
deleterious changes.
As in clinical chemistry where biochemical changes are widely used in disease diagnosis,
chematological indicators are coming increasingly into play (especially for fish populations)
in the assessment of ecosystem health. Among the physiological parameters that have been
used to asssess the health of fish populations in the Great Lakes are changes in serum protein,
transaminases, blood glucose, cortisol, and ammonia as well as changes in specific anti-
bodies. The hematological parameters in use include erythrocyte and leukocyte counts and
mean corpuscular hemaglobin concentration as well as the morphological and numerical
characteristics of blood cells in the peripheral vascular system and in the hematopoietic
centers of the spleen and kidney. Changes in some enzyme activity presage sublethal effects
of contaminants on the zooplankton. The indicator enzymes that suggest toxic effects on
the Great Lakes communities include acetylcholinesterase, ALA-D, adenosine triphospha-
tase, leucine aminonaphthylaminase, allantoinase, and the group of mixed function oxidase
enzymes. Chronic effects of sublethal quantities of contaminants can also be manifested in
steroidogenesis, endocrine stress response, and other ways. This area of biochemical indi-
cators of ecosystem dysfunction remains a fertile field of study.
The "target organ" concept in human toxicology is equally applicable in ecosystem
distress. A fundamental principle in clinical and ecosystem medicine is that certain parts of
the system are crucial to the functioning and well-being of the whole. Stress in the sensitive
parts will result in pronounced dysfunctional changes in the system as a whole. As noted
above, the destabilization of target populations in stressed ecosystems is well documented,
for example, in the Great Lakes. Nearshore zones and the subadjacent marshes, bogs and
wetlands are often the critical contaminant receptors ("target organs") of concern; stress in
such a habitat for fish spawning can exercise a significant impact on the composition of the
biota in the lake.
As is to be expected, the distress syndrome becomes manifest when the ecosystem is
already far advanced in its breakdown process. Changes in vital signs generally occur after
the systemic transformations have advanced to such a degree that the self-cleansing processes
can no longer maintain the ecological functions within the normal range. It needs to be
noted that most of the government initiatives in controlling water pollution are preventive
in intent. At the moment, there is no scientific basis for determining whether the removal
of the sources of stress will result in the recovery of ecosystems over-burdened with con-
taminants.
The discussion above clearly shows that aquatic ecotoxicology is still an emerging science
with an exciting future ahead of it. The large volume of disciplinary, deparmentalized,
medium-by-medium, and pollutant-by-pollutant studies have only yielded some clues on the
principal distress syndrome of severely distressed environments. A holistic framework must
now be developed to (1) further elucidate the vital signs of ecosystem health, (2) diagnose
the early warning symptoms of ecosystem stress, (3) assess the sensitivity and long-term
response of ecosystems to low doses of contaminants, and (4) formulate the proper treatment
protocols for ecosystem rehabilitation.
This volume thus is timely in every respect. It provides an overview of the fundamental
concepts that have evolved so far in both the theoretical and methodological aspects of the
field. The collation and evaluation of the available information should lead to the development
of some unifying principles on whole ecosystem response to different levels of contaminant
insult. It emphasizes the essential linkage of aquatic toxicology and environmental chemistry
and hence provides the groundwork for aquatic hazard assessment and environmental fate
modeling. This volume should serve as a focal point in the future development of aquatic
ecotoxicology as a key scientific discipline.
J. O. Nriagu
National Water Research Institute
Burlington, Ontario, Canada
INTRODUCTION
During the last five years, several scientific books have been devoted to the ecotoxicology
of aquatic systems. To complement these different publications, we felt it was desirable to
produce a synthesis, bringing together the fundamental concepts and the main methodologies
currently being developed in this discipline.
Research into ecotoxicology can be classified into three fundamental concerns: abiotic
factors, which characterize the physicochemistry of environments; biotic factors, relating to
biological structures and functions; and contamination factors, which define the modes of
pollution of ecosystems. All actions and interactions between these factors, subjected to
continual variations in space and in time, lead to extremely complex ecotoxicological mech-
anisms. With such a complex situation to consider, it becomes vitally important that specific
methodologies should be devised, both from the point of view of fundamental research, and
for the potential uses which may result.
The vastness of the subject made it imperative that we restrict this work to some extent:
we deal with freshwater ecosystems only. This theme is illustrated by many examples of
research on the main types of contaminants, apart from radionuclides, which are usually
dealt with separately. However, despite these limitations, we still cannot presume to have
produced an exhaustive analysis of the subject.
As the bases of ecotoxicology lie in the analysis of the structure and the functioning of
natural systems, the first two chapters of Volume I, Part I, are devoted to a synthesis of the
current state of knowledge in relation to two main types of freshwater ecosystems: running
water (rivers) and still water (lakes). In relation to this ecological basis, the main concepts
of ecotoxicology are developed in Chapter 3, giving particular emphasis to the mechanisms
which bring about the transfers of contaminants between the different compartments, and
also the effects this produces at each biological integration level.
Almost all studies carried out in this discipline call for quantitative knowledge of the
localization of toxic products within the systems being studied, in order to assess the con-
tamination levels, to follow their evolution, and to establish links between the resulting
effects. The problems of contaminant quantification, from the collecting of samples to the
different dosing methods, are described in Chapter 4, using trace metals and metalloids as
examples. The other three chapters in Part II deal with the evolution of pollutants in aquatic
biotopes: chemical speciation of trace metals (Chapter 5), adsorption of trace inorganic and
organic contaminants by solid paniculate matter (Chapter 6), and geochemistry and bioa-
vailability of trace metals in sediments (Chapter 7).
The most significant research methodologies currently being developed in aquatic eco-
toxicology are presented in Part III and in Part I of Volume II, the former being devoted to
in situ studies and the latter to experimental approaches in the laboratory.
After describing the essential mechanisms of contamination of the hydrosphere and its
effects on ecosystems (Chapter 8), three case studies were selected to illustrate particular
features of field research, the methodologies used and the type of results produced (Chapters
9.1, 9.2, and 9.3).
In an intermediate position between the "ecosystem" level and laboratory models are
enclosures and artificial streams, which are presented in Chapters 10.1, 10.2, and 11. They
offer the possibility of compromise between "representativity", owing to their situation in
a natural environment, and "simplicity", as they are limited to a certain extent and offer
the possibility of intervention.
Among the main research methodologies developed in the laboratory (Volume II, Part I),
we made a distinction according to the biological supports used:
1. Ecotoxicological models. Their chief objective is to show the effect of interspecific
relationships on the transfer of contaminants and their effects: linear transfer models
(experimental trophic chains) and interactive models (experimental ecosystems or mi-
crocosms) (Chapters 1.1 and 1.2).
2. Monospecific approaches. Using "tools" borrowed from toxicology, physiology, bio-
chemistry, and other sciences, this approach gives access to the fundamental mech-
anisms of bioaccumulation and the dysfunctions that can be induced at organism, cell,
or even molecule level. This approach can also be useful in perfecting toxicological
tests to estimate the possible risks from using new molecules, from modifying the
environments, etc. (Chapters 2.1 to 2.4.).
The last chapter of Volume II, Part I, is a presentation of the genetic effects of the
contamination of aquatic systems. This is a particularly important aspect of ecotoxicology,
concerning as it does both the immediate effects of toxicants at individual and population
levels and, above all, the evolution of species through hereditary transmission.
In Part II, Chapter 4 consists of a comparative analysis of the principal methodologies
used in aquatic ecotoxicology, drawing conclusions about the relative merits and limitations
of each.
Chapter 5 is devoted to mathematical modelization, a synthetic method with which it is
possible to describe, and even predict, the fate of contaminants in natural systems. The
devising of the different mathematical models is illustrated by examples, accompanied by
a critical analysis of their structure and use, and a description of their contribution in the
decision-making processes (artificial intelligence).
After considering the fundamental bases of ecotoxicology and describing the major es-
tablished methodologies, we felt it was important to devote the last chapter of the book to
areas of possible application. Implementing tools for diagnosis and creating methods of
intervention or prevention concerning the risks involved gives rise to many problems related
to the complexity of phenomena and the means available to tackle them.
In the conclusion, we discuss the future of ecotoxicology as a science. This must, of
necessity, be based on an increase in fundamental research in order to understand the
mechanisms involved and to use the acquired knowledge in considered applications; it must
also focus on the very close complementarity between the different methodologies, strength-
ening the multidisciplinarity of the approach but also addressing problems that the different
methods have in common.
A. Boudou
F. Ribeyre
THE EDITORS
Alain Boudou, D.Sc. is Senior Lecturer at the University of Bordeaux I. After obtaining
his Master's degree at the Science Faculty in Toulouse, he was awarded his Aggregation
(Teacher's Diploma) in Biological Science in 1971. He received his Doctorate (these d'Etat)
in 1982 at the University of Bordeaux. He lectures in fundamental ecology and ecotoxicology.
Francis Ribeyre, D.Sc. is an engineer at the Fundamental Ecology and Ecotoxicology
Department at the University of Bordeaux I. After his Master's degree in Electronics in
1973, he received his Doctorate (these d'Etat) in Biological Science in 1988 at the University
of Bordeaux. He lectures part-time in ecotoxicology and data analysis.
Since 1974, Drs. Boudou and Ribeyre have set up an ecotoxicology research team as part
of the University of Bordeaux I. The main theme of their work, based mainly on experimental
studies, is the processes of bioaccumulation and contaminant transfers in freshwater eco-
systems.
They have authored or coauthored more than 60 scientific publications in the field of
aquatic ecotoxicology. Their research is financed by various national and international bodies,
notably the Ministere Franc,ais de l'Enseignement Superieur et de la Recherche, Ministere
de l'Environnement, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Etablissement Public
Regional d'Aquitaine, Commission of the European Communities.
They are members of the following associations: Societe d'Ecotoxicologie Fondamentale
et Appliquee, Societe de Biologie, Association Franchise de Limnologie, Societe Franchise
d'Ecologie, International Society for Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety.