Table Of ContentStudies in Environmental Science 39
AQUATIC BIOENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES:
THE HANFORD EXPERIENCE 1944-84
C.D. Becker
Geosciences Department, Pacific Northwest Laboratory,
Richland, WA 99352, U.S .A .
”Onward ever,
Lovely River,
Softly calling to the sea,
Time that scars us,
Maims and mars us.
Leaves no track or trench on thee.
‘I
From “Beautiful Willamette”
By Samuel S. Simpson
ELSEVlE R
Amsterdam - Oxford - New York - Tokyo 1990
ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS B.V.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Becker. C. Dale (Clarence Dale)
Aquatic bioenvironmental studies the Hanford experience, 1944-84
/ C. Dale Becker.
p. cm. -- (Studies in environmental science . 39)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-444-88653-2
1. Nuclear reactors--Environmental aspects--Washington (State)-
-Hanford Reach. 2. Nuclear power plants--Environmental aspects-
-Washington (State)--Hanford Reach. 3. Aquatic organisms-
-Washington (State)--Hanford Reach--Effect of radiation on.
4. Aquatlc organisms--Washington (State)-+anford Reach--Effect of
water pollution on. 5. Environmental monitoring--Washington
(State)--Hanford Reach. 6. Indicators (Biology)--Washington
(State)--Hanford Reach. 7. Hanford Works (Wash.) I.T itle.
XI. Series.
OH545.NBB43 1990
628.1'685--dC20 90-41371
CIP
ISBN 0-444-88653-2
0 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1990
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V
PREFACE
From 1944 to 1971, the Hanford Reach of the Columbia River in
Washington State was used to provide cooling water for up to eight
single-purpose reactors producing a new and unique fissionable material:
plutonium. The release of more than 60 radionuclides, vast amounts of
waste heat, and some process chemicals in the effluent to the Hanford
Reach during that era resulted in no apparent impairment of ecological
functions in the Columbia River. The knowledge that releases of this type
and amount can be mitigated by a river ecosystem is important to
present and future generations. Today, only traces of radioactivity from
the plutonium-production era at the Hanford Site remain in the form of a
few long-lived radionuclides in sediment deposits and river organisms.
From 1971 through 1984, water from the Hanford Reach was used in
Hanford Site operations for closed-cycle cooling of one dual-purpose
facility (plutonium and electricity), dilution of process effluents, one
nuclear power generating plant, and a variety of offsite purposes. Re-
leases of radioactivity, heat, or chemicals to the Hanford Reach declined
to relatively small amounts. All releases became subject to applicable
federal regulations designed to protect water quality and public health.
Long-term environmental monitoring programs were expanded onsite and
offsite to demonstrate compliance.
The quality of water in the Hanford Reach remains high in the 1980s,
in a near-pristine condition, almost representative of the years before the
first dams were constructed on the mainstem Columbia River. The river’s
quality complies well with all state standards for drinking water. Activi-
ties and events taking place upstream now influence changes in the
quality of water flowing through the Hanford Reach to a greater extent
than do site activities.
My objective is to review bioenvironmental studies related to the
Hanford Reach of the Columbia River on the Hanford Site from 1944 to
1984. These studies dealt, in large part, with the potential effects of
specific Hanford Site activities on aquatic organisms and the
vi
physicochemical properties of the river ecosystem. The studies encom-
passed an extended series of interrelated field and laboratory investiga-
tions.
This book covers early experiments at the University of Washington on
radiological effects and aquatic organisms. It details laboratory and field
studies associated with operation of single-purpose, plutonium-produc-
tion reactors at Hanford from 1944 to 1971. It covers subsequent investi-
gations to identify any effects on the Columbia River and its aquatic
organisms from Hanford Site energy production activities, A historical
framework is used to help explain not only why certain studies were
conducted but their contribution to radioecology, aquatic ecology, and
decisions to guide onsite operations.
We now know that initial bioenvironmental studies at Hanford were
primitive by today’s more exacting standards. Yet the initial studies
retain value, and they provide important environmental lessons. In 1971,
John R. Totter, then Director of DOE’S Division of Biology and Medi-
cine, drew attention to “the importance of looking back as we move
ahead in science.. .( because) .. . things have a way of being rediscovered
periodically; sometimes this must be pointed out to those who cannot
remember the past.” Then, as now, progress in science builds on founda-
tions built by others.
In style, I have emphasized results of findings rather than methods. A
complete reference list for each chapter provides further insight to
readers. The material used has been drawn extensively from publications
and periodic reports issued by government, industrial, and institutional
scientists who have conducted research related to the Hanford Reach
since 1944 and, to a lesser extent, on operational documents and annual
progress reports that may be difficult to locate today. However, the
“grey” literature produced by Hanford contractors often presents incom-
plete findings that were subsequently reexamined, analyzed, consolidated,
and published in open-literature journals and symposia. Whenever a
study was reported in the open literature, it was used as a principal
reference source. Open-literature publications describing long-term, coor-
dinated research efforts in the Hanford Reach were particularly valuable
as references.
In retrospect, perhaps nowhere in the world were bioenvironmental
studies conducted in a flowing river ecosystem with the same intensity
and thoroughness as they were in the Hanford Reach from 1944 to 1984.
One conclusion is inescapable: these studies advanced scientific knowl-
edge and provided lasting benefit to mankind. Review of stresses imposed
on the Columbia River ecosystem by activities at Hanford, why and how
vii
various studies were undertaken, and the significance of research find-
ings, are best understood when they are placed in a frame of historical
events.
This I have attempted to do.
C.D. Becker
August 1990
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Completion of this book rests on the broad shoulders of many individu-
als. Some are currently employed by Pacific Northwest Laboratory
(PNL) on the Hanford Site, while others are now retired or working
elsewhere. Contributions were made in one form or another based on an
individual’s research and administrative backgrounds, technical expertise,
depth of environmental concern, and willingness to contribute. Among
the many, the assistance of the following was especially helpful.
From the ranks of PNL research scientists and administrators: Carl D.
Corbitt, Colbert E. Cushing, Dennis D. Dauble, Richard F. Foster (re-
tired), Robert H. Gray, Frank P. Hungate, Duane A. Neitzel, Ira1 C.
Nelson, Thomas L. Page, Keith R. Price, Roy C. Thompson, Jr. (retired),
and Donald G. Watson (retired). Former PNL employees include Charles
C. Coutant, Oak Ridge National Laboratory; Mark J. Schneider, Bonne-
ville Power Administration; and Roy E. Nakatani (retired), Fisheries
Research Institute, University of Washington. From the former Depart-
ment of Radiation Biology at the College of Fisheries, University of
Washington: Lauren R. Donaldson (retired), Allyn H. Seymour (retired),
and Ahmad E. Nevissi.
The final drive to publication was made possible by the editorial effort
of Julie M. Gephart, Publication and Administration Department, PNL,
and by funding from the US. Department of Energy, Richland Oper-
ations Office under Contract DE-AC06-76RLO 1830.
As an author attempting to synthesize historical records, I must point
out the significance of long-term support from the U.S. Department of
Energy and its predecessors on the Hanford Site. These administrators
recognized the need for bioenvironmental studies related to the Hanford
Reach of the Columbia River long before current environmental protec-
tion laws became effective, and they provided for the continuity of these
studies over 40 consecutive years.
xvii
GLOSSARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND COMMON NAMES
Common Name Scientific Name
FISH
white sturgeon Acipenser transmontanus
largescale sucker Ca tost omus macrocheilus
bridgelip sucker C. columbianus
pumpkinseed Lepomis gibbosus
largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides
smallmouth bass M. dolomieui
torrent sculpin Cottus rhotheus
common carp Cyprinus carpi0
northern squawfish Ptychocheilus oregonensis
redside shiner Richardsonius balteatus
black bullhead Ictalurus melas
brown bullhead I. nebulosus
channel catfish I. punctatus
mountain whitefish Prosopium williamsoni
chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
coho salmon 0. kisutch
sockeye salmon 0. nerka
cutthroat trout 0. clarki (formerly
Salmo clarki)
rainbow trout or 0. mykiss (formerly
steelhead (anadromous Salmo gairdneri)
form)
brook trout Salvelinus f ontinalis
AQUATIC INVERTEBRATES
freshwater mussel Anodonta californiensis
snail Stagnicola spp.
giant Columbia River
limpet Fisherola nuttalli
great Columbia River
spire snail Lythoglyphus columbiana
crayfish Pacifasticus leniusculus
xviii
sponge Spongillu lacustris
caddis fly Hydropsyche cockerelli
black fly Simulium vittatum
mayfly Paraleptophlebia bicornata
midge fly Family Chironomidae
AQUATIC PLANTS
reed canarygrass Scirpus spp.
common wheatgrass Agropyron spicatum
barnyard grass Echinochla crusgallii
willows Salk spp.
yellow cress Rorippa columbiae
TERRESTRIAL ANIMALS
American bald eagle Haliaeetus leurocephalus
mule deer Odocoileus hemionus
coyote Canis latrans
Great Basin Canada
goose Branta cpnadensis mof fitti
American osprey Pandiomhaliaetus
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
The Hanford Site
The Hanford Site is a semiarid expanse in southcentral Washington
covering about 1460 square kilometers (560 square miles) (Figure 1.1).T he
site is administered by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) for
research and development (R&D) activities in the areas of defense,
energy, and environmental studies. Hanford was established during World
War I1 after a nationwide search for a remote, sparsely settled location to
produce a unique fissionable material of great importance to mankind.
While activities at Hanford have diversified over a span of 40 years
(Anonymous 1984), the site remained a key location for formulating and
implementing government policy in defense, energy, and the environ-
ment.
The Columbia River has always played a key role at Hanford. The
river flows through the northern part and along the eastern border of the
site. Columbia River water was initially used for the once-through cooling
of up to eight single-purpose plutonium-production reactors and for the
chemical recovery of isotopes from irradiated fuels. From 1944 to 1971,
these reactors discharged cooling water to the Columbia River, thus
adding large amounts of radioactivity, heat, and chemicals to the river
environment (Figure 1.2).
More recently, water from the Hanford Reach has been used to cool a
dual-purpose reactor that produces plutonium and steam, an adjacent
power plant that converts the steam to electricity, and a commercial
power-generating plant that uses nuclear fuel. This water also serves to
dilute some process effluent after their release, and is used to meet a
variety of offsite regional needs. Today, nearly all use and return of water
to the Columbia River from the Hanford Site is controlled by federal and
state regulations to limit impairment of water quality.
The Hanford Reach of the Columbia River extends from Vernita
(below Priest Rapids Dam) for 94 kilometers (58 miles) downstream to
the city of Richland (see Figure 1.1).T he Hanford Reach remains flowing
2
\i stern
Kilometers
Fig. 1.1. Relative isolation and the availability of large amounts of water were two reasons
that Hanford was sited on the mainstem Columbia River in southeastern Washington in
1943. Today, the Hanford Reach is the only portion of the mainstem Columbia River
below the international border that remains flowing.
