Aqa a Level Chemistry Studentbook 2 (Aqa a Level Science)

336 Pages·2015·18.642 MB·English

by  Teresa Quigg

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AQA
A-level
Chemistry
2
Alyn G. McFarland
Teresa Quigg
Nora Henry
1471807701_AQA_Chemistry_2_CP_ePub.indd 1 19/06/2015 12:51
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© Alyn McFarland and Nora Henry 2015
First published in 2015 by
Hodder Education,
An Hachette UK Company
Carmelite House, 50 Victoria Embankment, London EC4Y ODZ
Impression number 5 4 3 2 1
Year 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015
All rights reserved. Apart from any use permitted under UK copyright law, no part of this publication
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Cover photo © SSilver–Fotolia
Illustrations by Aptara
Typeset in 11/13 pt ITC Berkeley Oldstyle Std by Aptara, Inc.
Printed in Italy
A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.
ISBN 978 1471 807701
807732_FM_AQA_Chemistry_2_i-vi.indd 2 16/06/2015 17:18
Contents
Get the most from this book iv
Acknowledgements vi
1 Thermodynamics: Born-Haber cycles 1
2 Thermodynamics: Gibbs free energy change,
ΔG, and entropy change, ΔS 26
3 Rate equations 43
4 Equilibrium constant K for homogeneous
p
systems 68
5 Electrode potentials and cells 78
6 Acids and bases 100
7 Properties of Period 3 elements and
their oxides 135
8 Transition metals 149
9 Transition metals: Variable oxidation states 175
10 Optical isomerism 192
11 The carbonyl group 198
12 Aromatic chemistry 233
13 Amines 245
14 Polymers, amino acids and DNA 261
15 Organic synthesis, NMR spectroscopy
and chromatography 287
16 Maths for chemistry 309
Index 321
QR codes 326
807732_FM_AQA_Chemistry_2_i-vi.indd 3 13/06/15 9:29 am
Get the most from this book
Welcome to the AQA A-level Chemistry 2 Student’s Book. This book
covers Year 2 of the AQA A-level Chemistry specification and all content
for the AQA A2 Chemistry specification.
The following features have been included to help you get the most from
this book.
Prior knowledge
Thermodynamics:
2 ●●
This is a short list of topics that Gchibabnsg efr,e ∆eG e, naenrdg y FAre arecetaaicotsnio.i nTb hthlea eet n ctrahnea lopacycc ucrht aainto gane p oasnrt iictsu loawr nte mis pneorta etunroeu igsh c atoll edde tae rfmeaisnibel e Entropy
you should be familiar with before whether or not a reaction will be feasible as some feasible reactions are
endothermic. These include:
entropy change, ∆S KCl(s) +(aq) → K+ (aq) + Cl− (aq) ΔH 1 = +19 kJ mol−1
starting a chapter. The questions H2O(s) → H2O(l) ΔH 1 = +6 kJ mol−1
H2O(l) → H2O(g) ΔH 1 = +44 kJ mol−1
will help to test your understanding. PRIOR KNOWLEDGE (NH4)2CO3 (s) → 2NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(g) ΔH 1 = +68 kJ mol−1
IEfto nlisleo rewgxiepntegicc atser iedn s tthohamet eYye okauer ya 1 rp ebo oifnaotmks oiolfifa tPrh rewi oiAtrh- Kl eanvlloe owl fCl ethhdeegm ec:iosntrteyn cto oufr Cseh.a Tphteer 4 Adarilesl o fmorduoerrr e.o Tdf ihtshioser sidese trrheeaedc dttihiosanonrs d laieqbruo oivdfe st h haean vpdea sorotnilcuel tetihso ininn gw t hihnei c cshoy msatremem mo n(or re–ea acdntii soionnrc)d.r eeGraeasdese isn
● A positive value for ∆H indicates an endothermic reaction. than solids.
●●● AEeHisn ne nittsnhehsdgaa’eslalppp tLyiyev a ncecwdh hv eaaasnnntlutagg etoeee fs fs fo too htrrfh e ∆aca rHo tro m teuihnatbeedcu itetcsiaonatkinttohee nmans l oapaarynyn f bdcoe ehrxd maocentapahgleteceinrou dmfnloas.rit c oea ndr cel yuha soecinmtni ogtinhc sa.etl a irnneidtaiaacrltd iao nnd ●●Aseynlslt troeofmp tyh.. Temhe s dheogwre ae cohf adnigsoe rfdroerm o ra nra onrddoemrende ssyss itnem a styos ate mmo irse c raalnleddo imts
final states. Entropy
● Eusnitnhga lHpey scsh’sa nLgaews. may be calculated from other enthalpy changes Entropy is a measure of disorder within a Entropy is given the symbol S and standard or absolute entropy S 1.
system. Entropy is measured in J K−1 mol−1.
TEST YOURSELF ON PRIOR KNOWLEDGE 1 Absolute entropy values (standard entropy values)
1 Calcium carbonate decomposes on heating to form calcium oxide and Absolute or standard entropy values are calculated for one mole of a
carbon dioxide. Using the standard enthalpies of formation, calculate substance based on a scale where the substance has an entropy value of
theC eanCthOa3 l(psy) →cha CnagOe( sfo) r+ t ChiOs2 r(ge)action. 0is (az epreor)f eactt 0c rKy.s Ttahl.is assumes that the crystalline form of the substance at 0 K
∆f H1/kJ mol−1 Some absolute entropy (S 1) values are given in the table:
26 23 aAaCeCCCnc)ma Oaactl4hUccOCmo2Nauh(rsO(gsolladHip)3a)nnni(yt3nsgieg( a)gcg et th )hrh t faoe+eeon a rt5ssgch Ottteteahas2 nfni( eosgwddqr )ar−−–ai utt→e1r36rhha2da93de t0 4oc6 ie 4e7orxtnNinenyotatg.hOnhcea.(atgnlilpo) p tyn+oi e o N6fsfo H2 for(o2gmfrO )mf (o+ng ra3i)mttHirooa2n(gtg ioeo) fnn→ a ,m mc 2aomNlncHoounx3lii(aadgt,)ee wi sath hn−eed9r 2ees kn tteJhtha emam lop l−y1 . Fapsotiriirlagde ciue swkrr ..meh D e2oin.rs1 eoi t Trl ofidkaseelsrlls iyin,s tgt omh a ga osnirvo eeaf tpan dr edoraiibsntalokybr ioglnerat dnothe itsraheenedd AMSNHISC(Cd2iol((a2aig((ssaOslOsC())im)s) (d(lss)(sos)))nd)423175S239.22988814......./0774304 J K−1 mol−1HHCHCNBNLi2Sr22gHaqHOO2(2Cu4(l(5(2l)Nllil)O()(d)laO)Hsq3()(la)q)71717111S1166590516101.0../108 J K−1 mol−1CCONHHNCGlOOa222H22((O(s(2g(gg3gg(e(()))ggg))s))) 11211211S69998310114528395/ J K−1 mol−1 27
NH3(g) −∆4f H61/ kJ mol−1 Tsuhbes htainghcee.r the absolute entropy value, the higher the degree of disorder of a
O2(g) 0 From the table it is clear to see that solids are more ordered than liquids and
NO(g) + 90 solutions, which are more ordered than gases. This can be used as a general
H2O(g) −242 rule to explain changes in entropy later.
b) Explain why oxygen has a value of zero.
807701_C02_AQA_Chemistry_2_026-042.indd 26 K27/e05/2015 y15:528 0770t1_C0e2_AQA_Crhemistrym_2_026-042.indsd 27 and formulae 27/05/2015 15:52
These are highlighted in the text and
definitions are given in the margin
to help you pick out and learn these
Tips
important concepts.
These highlight important facts,
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you progress through a topic. 09/03/2015 17:081471807671_AQA_Chemistry_Ch6.indd 157
1471807671_AQA_Chemistry_Ch6.indd 156
807732_FM_AQA_Chemistry_2_i-vi.indd 4 13/06/15 9:30 am
Activities
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These practical-based activities will help consolidate your learning and test e
t
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In this edition the authors describe many important experimental procedures m
o
as “Activities” to conform to recent changes in the A-level curriculum. Teachers s
t
should be aware that, although there is enough information to inform students f
r
o
of techniques and many observations for exam-question purposes, there is not m
enough information for teachers to replicate the experiments themselves or t
h
with students without recourse to CLEAPSS Hazcards or Laboratory worksheets is
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09/03/2015 17:08
A dedicated chapter for developing your Maths can be found at the back of
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807732_FM_AQA_Chemistry_2_i-vi.indd 6 16/06/2015 17:18
1
Thermodynamics:
Born-Haber cycles
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
It is expected that you are familiar with all of the content of the
Energetics unit in Year 1 of the A-level Chemistry course. The following
are some key points of Prior Knowledge:
● The enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is represented by ΔH.
● ΔH is the heat energy change measured under conditions of constant
pressure.
● For exothermic reactions, ΔH has a negative value.
● For endothermic reactions, ΔH has a positive value.
● The standard enthalpy change of combustion is the enthalpy change
when 1 mole of a substance is burned completely in excess oxygen
with all substances in standard states under standard conditions.
● The standard enthalpy change of formation is the enthalpy change
when 1 mole of a compound is formed from its constituent elements
in their standard states under standard conditions.
● Hess’s Law states that the enthalpy change for a chemical reaction
is independent of the route taken and depends only on the initial and
final states.
● Hess’s Law can be used to calculate enthalpy changes for chemical
reactions from the enthalpy changes of other reactions.
● Temperature changes may be used to calculate enthalpy changes
using q = mcΔT.
● The mean bond enthalpy is a measure of the energy required to break
one mole of a covalent bond measured in kJ mol−1 averaged across
compounds containing that bond.
● Mean bond enthalpy values may be used to calculate the enthalpy
change for a chemical reaction by considering the covalent bonds
broken (endothermic) and the covalent bonds made during the reaction.
TEST YOURSELF ON PRIOR KNOWLEDGE 1
1 Write equations, including state symbols, to represent the standard
Key: enthalpies of formation given below:
a) Formation of magnesium oxide, MgO(s).
1
b) Formation of hydrogen chloride, HCl(g).
2 Write equations, including state symbols to represent the standard
Na
enthalpies of combustion given below:
a) Combustion of propane, C H (g).
3 8
b) Combustion of methanol, CH OH(l).
3
Cl
807701_C01_AQA_Chemistry_2_001-025.indd 1 13/06/15 8:50 am
3 The standard enthalpies of formation of ethane, carbon dioxide and
water are −85, −394 and −286 kJ mol−1, respectively.
a) State Hess’s Law.
b) Write an equation, including state symbols, to represent the
standard enthalpy of combustion of ethane.
c) C alculate a value for the standard enthalpy of combustion of
ethane.
4 In an experiment the temperature of 200 g of water rose by 22.4 °C
when 0.015 mole of ethanol were burned in air and the heat used
to warm the water. Calculate a value for the enthalpy change when
one mole of ethanol is burned. The specific heat capacity of water is
4.18 J K−1 g−1).
5 The mean bond energy values for certain covalent bonds are given
below:
Bond Mean bond enthalpy (kJ mol−1)
C–H 412
C–C 348
O–H 463
O=O 496
C=O 803
Calculate a value for the following reaction using these values:
C H (g) + 5O (g) → 3CO (g) + 4H O(g)
3 8 2 2 2
●●
S Enthalpy changes in ionic compounds
E
L
C
Y The changes that occur during the formation of an ionic compound are
C
R  considered in this unit. The dissociation or formation of an ionic compound
E
B may be calculated from other values using Hess’s Law in the form of a
A
H Born-Haber cycle.
-
N
R Notations
O
B
:  ● ΔH represents an enthalpy change.
S
C ● ΔH is measured under stated conditions, i.e. ΔH is the enthalpy
MI 298
change at 298 K and the pressure is 100 kPa.
A
N
Y ● The enthalpy change is the heat energy change at constant pressure.
D
O ● Standard Enthalpy Values are the ΔH value for enthalpy changes of
M
specific reactions measured under standard conditions.
R
E ● Standard conditions are represented by the symbol 1 which is used
H
   T after ΔH to indicate that an enthalpy changes occurs under standard
1  conditions.
● Standard conditions are 298 K, 100 kPa pressure, all solutions of
concentration 1 mol dm−3 and all substances are present in their standard
2
states.
807701_C01_AQA_Chemistry_2_001-025.indd 2 13/06/15 8:50 am