Table Of ContentAL )plied Thermodynamics
For Engineering TecGmologists
Fifth Edition
The late
T. D. EASTOP A. McCONKEY
B.Sc., Ph.D., C.Eng., B.Sc., Ph.D., C.Eng.,
F.I.Mech.E., F.C.I.B.S.E., F.I.Mech.E.
Formerly Head of the School Formerly Head of the
of Engineering at Department of Mechanical and
Wolverhampton Polytechnic
Industrial Engineering at
Dundee College of Technology
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© Longman Group UK Limited 1963, 1969, 1978, 1986, 1993
All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced,
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London, W1T 4LP.
First published 1963
Second Edition 1969
Third Edition 1978
Fourth Edition 1986
Fifth Edition 1993
ISBN 0-582-09193-4
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Eastop, T.D. (Thomas D.)
Applied thermodynamics for engingeering technologists/T.D.
Eastop, A. McConkey. -- 5th ed.
p CM.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
I. Thermodynamics. I. McConkey, A. (Allan), 1927—
II. Title.
TJ265.E23 1993
621.402' 1--dc20
Set by 6 in 10/12pt Monotype Lasercomp Times 569
Produced by Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd
Printed in Singapore (COS)
12 11
07 06 05 04 03
Contents
Preface xi
Acknowledgements xiii
Nomenclature xv
1 Introduction and the First Law of Thermodynamics 1
1.1 Heat, work, and the system 2
1.2 Units 6
1.3 The state of the working fluid 9
1.4 Reversibility 10
1.5 Reversible work 11
1.6 Conservation of energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics 15
1.7 The non-flow equation 17
1.8 The steady-flow equation 19
Problems 23
The Working Fluid 27
2.1 Liquid, vapour, and gas 27
2.2 The use of vapour tables 30
2.3 The perfect gas 39
Problems 47
3 Reversible and Irreversible Processes 51
3.1 Reversible non-flow processes 51
3.2 Reversible adiabatic non-flow processes 59
3.3 Polytropic processes 66
3.4 Reversible flow processes 72
3.5 Irreversible processes 73
3.6 Nonsteady-flow processes 78
Problems 84
4 The Second Law 88
4.1 The heat engine 88
Contents
4.2 Entropy 90
4.3 The T-s diagram 93
4.4 Reversible processes on the T-s diagram 99
4.5 Entropy and irreversibility 109
4.6 Exergy 115
Problems 121
5 The Heat Engine Cycle 125
5.1 The Carnot cycle 125
5.2 Absolute temperature scale 127
5.3 The Carnot cycle for a perfect gas 128
5.4 The constant pressure cycle 130
5.5 The air standard cycle 133
5.6 The Otto cycle 135
5.7 The diesel cycle 136
5.8 The dual-combustion cycle 138
5.9 Mean effective pressure 141
5.10 The Stirling and Ericsson cycles 143
Problems 145
6 Mixtures 147
6.1 Dalton's law and the Gibbs-Dalton law 147
6.2 Volumetric analysis of a gas mixture 150
6.3 The molar mass and specific gas constant 151
6.4 Specific heat capacities of a gas mixture 157
6.5 Adiabatic mixing of perfect gases 162
6.6 Gas and vapour mixtures 166
6.7 The steam condenser 170
Problems 173
7 Combustion 176
7.1 Basic chemistry 177
7.2 Fuels 178
7.3 Combustion equations 180
7.4 Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio 182
7.5 Exhaust and flue gas analysis 183
7.6 Practical analysis of combustion products 192
7.7 Dissociation 200
7.8 Internal energy and enthalpy of reaction 208
7.9 Enthalpy of formation 219
7.10 Calorific value of fuels 221
7.11 Power plant thermal efficiency 221
7.12 Practical determination of calorific values 223
7.13 Air and fuel-vapour mixtures 228
Problems 230
vi
Contents
8 Steam Cycles 234
8.1 The Rankine cycle 235
8.2 Rankine cycle with superheat 243
8.3 The enthalpy-entropy chart 245
8.4 The reheat cycle 246
8.5 The regenerative cycle 248
8.6 Further considerations of plant efficiency 253
8.7 Steam for heating and process use 255
Problems 257
9 Gas Turbine Cycles 260
9.1 The practical gas turbine cycle 260
9.2 Modifications to the basic cycle 269
9.3 Combustion 281
9.4 Additional factors 283
Problems 283
10 Nozzles and Jet Propulsion 287
10.1 Nozzle shape 287
10.2 Critical pressure ratio 289
10.3 Maximum mass flow 295
10.4 Nozzles off the design pressure ratio 298
10.5 Nozzle efficiency 300
10.6 The steam nozzle 304
10.7 Stagnation conditions 309
10.8 Jet propulsion 311
10.9 The turbojet 314
10.10 The turboprop 322
Problems 325
11 Rotodynamic Machinery 328
11.1 Rotodynamic machines for steam and gas turbine plant 328
11.2 The impulse steam turbine 332
11.3 Pressure and velocity compounded impulse steam turbines 338
11.4 Axial-flow reaction turbines 346
11.5 Losses in turbines 358
11.6 Axial-flow compressors 360
11.7 Overall efficiency, stage efficiency, and reheat factor 363
11.8 Polytropic efficiency 368
11.9 Centrifugal compressors 372
11.10 Radial-flow turbines 375
Problems 376
12 Positive Displacement Machines 381
12.1 Reciprocating compressors 382
12.2 Reciprocating compressors including clearance 388
vii
Contents
12.3 Multi-stage compression 396
12.4 Steady-flow analysis 405
12.5 Rotary machines 406
12.6 , Vacuum pumps 411
12.7 Air motors 412
Problems 416
13 Reciprocating Internal-combustion Engines 419
13.1 Four-stroke cycle 421
13.2 Two-stroke cycle 424
13.3 Other types of engine 426
13.4 Criteria of performance 427
13.5 Engine output and efficiency 434
13.6 Performance characteristics 437
13.7 Factors influencing performance 442
13.8 Real cycles and the air standard cycle 447
13.9 Properties of fuels for IC engines 450
13.10 Fuel systems 452
13.11 Measurement of air and fuel flow rates 460
13.12 Supercharging 463
13.13 Engine emissions and legal requirements 470
13.14 Alternative forms of IC engines 475
13.15 Developments in IC engines 479
Problems 481
14 Refrigeration and Heat Pumps 485
14.1 Reversed heat engine cycles 486
14.2 Vapour-compression cycles 491
14.3 Refrigerating load 499
14.4 The pressure-enthalpy diagram 501
14.5 Compressor type 503
14.6 The use of the flash chamber 507
14.7 Vapour-absorption cycles 511
14.8 Gas cycles 517
14.9 Liquefaction of gases 520
14.10 Steam-jet refrigeration 522
14.11 Refrigerants 522
14.12 Control of refrigerating capacity 528
Problems 529
15 Psychrometry and Air-conditioning 533
15.1 Psychrometric mixtures 533
15.2 Specific humidity, relative humidity, and percentage saturation 534
15.3 Specific enthalpy, specific heat capacity, and specific volume of
moist air 540
15.4 Air-conditioning systems 542
Contents
15.5 Cooling towers 553
Problems 556
16 Heat Transfer 561
16.1 Fourier's law of conduction 562
16.2 Newton's law of cooling 565
16.3 The composite wall and the electrical analogy 568
16.4 Heat flow through a cylinder and a sphere 572
16.5 General conduction equation 577
16.6 Numerical methods for conduction 584
16.7 Two-dimensional steady conduction 587
16.8 One-dimensional transient conduction by finite difference 593
16.9 Forced convection 599
16.10 Natural convection 610
16.11 Heat exchangers 613
16.12 Heat exchanger effectiveness 623
16.13 Extended surfaces 627
16.14 Black-body radiation 633
16.15 The grey body 634
16.16 The Stefan—Boltzmann 1aw637 637
16.17 Lambert's law and the geometric factor 639
16.18 Radiant interchange between grey bodies 643
16.19 Heat transfer coefficient for radiation 649
16.20 Gas radiation 650
16.21 Further study 651
Problems 652
17 The Sources, Use, and Management of Energy 663
17.1 Sources of energy supply, and energy demands 664
17.2 Combined cycles 670
17.3 Combined heat and power (co-generation) 673
17.4 Energy management and energy audits 680
17.5 The technology of energy saving 688
17.6 Alternative energy sources 696
17.7 Nuclear power plant 699
Problems 701
Index 708
ix
Preface to the Fifh Edidon
This book aims to give students of engineering a thorough grounding in the
subject of thermodynamics and the design of thermal plant. The book is
comprehensive in its coverage without sacrificing the necessary theoretical
rigour; the emphasis throughout is on the applications of the theory to real
processes and plant. The objectives have remained unaltered through four
previous editions and continuing interest in the book not only in the UK but
also in most other countries in the English-speaking world has confirmed these
objectives as suitable for students on a wide range of courses.
The book is designed as a complete course text for degree courses in
mechanical, aeronautical, chemical, environmental, and energy engineering,
engineering science, and combined studies courses in which thermodynamics
and related topics are an important part of the curriculum. Students on
technician diploma and certificate courses in engineering will also find the book
suitable although the coverage is more extensive than they might require.
A number of lecturers in universities and polytechnics in the UK were asked
for comments on the book before the fifth edition was prepared; the consensus
was that the balance of the book was broadly correct with only minor changes
needed, but a more modern format was thought to be desirable.
The fifth edition has therefore been completely recast in a new style which
will make it more attractive, and easier to use. The opportunity has also been
taken to rearrange the chapters in what seems to be a more logical order.
Throughout the book the emphasis is now on the effective use of energy resources
and the need to protect the environment. The chapter on energy sources,
use and management (Ch. 17), has been improved and extended; it now includes
a more extensive coverage of combined heat and power and a new section on
energy recovery, including a brief mention of pinch technology. The material
on gas turbines, steam turbines, nozzles, and propulsion (Chs 8-10) has been
rewritten in a more logical format giving a more general treatment of blade
design while still stressing the differences in design procedures for steam and
gas turbines. In the chapter on refrigeration (Ch. 14) more emphasis is given
to the heat pump and to vapour-absorption plant. A new section on refrigerants
discusses the vitally important question of the thinning of the ozone layer due
to CFCs; examples and problems in this chapter now use refrigerant 134a
