Table Of ContentDOCUMENT RESUME
ED 130 511
FL 007 947
Wolfram, Walt; Christian, Donna
AUTHOR
Appalachian Speech.
TITLE
INSTITUTION
Center for Applied Linguistics, Arlington, Va.
SPONS AGENCY National Inst. of Education (DHEW), Washington,
D.C.
PUB DATE
76
GRANT
NIE-G-74-0026
195p.; For related document, see ED 112 687
NOTE
Center for Applied Linguistics, 1611 N. Kent Street,
AVAILABLE FROM
Arlington, Virginia 22209 ($8.00)
EDRS PRICE
mp-$0.83 HC-$10.03 Plus Postage.
Adverbs; *American English; Consonants; Descriptive
DESCRIPTORS
Linguistics; *Dialect Studies; Distinctive Features;
Grammar; Language Attitudes; Language Patterns;
*Language Variation; Morphology (Languages); Native
Speakers; Negative Forms (Language); Nominals;
*Nonstandard Dialects; Phonology; Reading; *Regional
Dialects; *Social Dialects; Sociolinguistics; Syntax;
Testing; Verbs; Vowels
*Appalachian Speech
IDENTIFIERS
ABSTRACT
This description of Appalachian speech, derived from
it
one part of the final report of a research project on Appalachian
Dialects, is intended as a reference work for educators, particularly
reading specialists, English teachers, language arts specialists, and
speech pathologists. Chapters deal with the following main topics:
(1) a sociolinguistic framework for the study of Appalachian English;
C4 phonological aspects of Appalachian speech;
(3) grammatical
features of Appalachian speech; and (4) educational isplications of
dialect diversity, with particular reference to language attitudes,
testing, language arts, and reading. Appendices contain interview
questionnaires, a sample informant interview, and a complete list of
informants.
(AM)
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9
4
CENTER FOR APPLIED LINGUISTICS
2
il
Waft Wolfram
Donna Christian
4
Center forAppled Linguistics
Library of Congress Catalog Card No.: 76-15079
ISBN: 87281,050-X
June 1976
Copyright@1976
By the Center for Applied Linguistics
1611 North Kent St, :et
Arlington, Virginia 22209
4
Printed in the U.S.A.
"Evezybody lives in the mountains has an accent all to theirself."
%
5.
Preface
Although the focus on social dialects during the past decade has greatly
advanced the theoretical and descriptive base of sociolinguistics, it is
apparent that the descriptive concerns have often been quite selective.
Descriptive accounts of some varieties proliferate rapidly while other
ln this book, we hope to expand the
varieties remain virtually ignored.
descriptive base of dialect diversity in American English by focusing on
an often-neglected geographical area of tne United Statesthe mountain
range of Appalachia.
While we have adopted a particular sociolinguistic
model for our description, we have endeavored to present our findings in
a way that would make them accessible to specialists in fields other
We are
than professional linguistics and still be of use to linguists.
primarily interested in ptaviding 4 meaningful reference work for edu-
cators--particularly reading specialists, English teachers, language
We are further concerned
arts specialists, and spcech pathologists.
with the educational implications of such diversity, and therefore dis-,
cuss the educational significance of dialect diversity at some length.
We weuld like to think of our description of Appalachian English as com-
prehensive, but we are well aware of the fact that there are a number of
descriptive aspects which we have treated in little or no detail.
This book originally developed from one part of a final research
report, Sociolinguistic Variables in Appalachian Dialects, carried out
under contract NIE-C-74-0026 with the National Institute of Education
0/10, from June 1974 - August 1975.
Detailed formal descriptions of
a number of the features treated in the final research report are not
included here
but they can be found in the second part of the final re-
port submitteC1 to the N1E.
There are many people to whom we wre indebted for assistance and
Prcminent among them are those individuals in Monroe and
consultation.
Mary
Mercer Caunties who aided us in our initial contacts in the area.
Compton and William McNeel in Monroe County and C. D. Lilly and Haroloi
Okes of Mercer County were most gracious in helping us establish con-
They generously opened up the schools in these
tacts in the area.
counties for those aspects of the research which were conducted in that
We could not have participated in a more cordial working
connection.
They also offered their kind assistance in extending our
relationship.
contacts to other individuals in the area who assisted us in this ven-
ture. including Haskell Shdmate, county clerk of Monroe County, West
Virginia, who provided us with invaluable insight into the history of
the region.
The study could not have been conducted without the assistance of
Nora Mann and Gary Pence, of
our fieldworkers from the two counties;
Monroe County; Harless Cook, Brenda Lohr, Agnes Pietrantozzi, and
Rebecca Michael, of Mercer County.
They each demonstrated that indi-
6
genous fieldworkers can be used to great advantage iG a study of tnis type.
Their adaptation of the questionnaire and general knowledge of the area
proved to be a rich, useful resource in this investigation.
We owe our greatest debt to them and the informants who provided the
interviews that seive as our data base for this analysis.
Although the
informants, who remain anonymous in this report, may have been puzzled
by the seeming inanity of our prebing, they willingly tolerated the
intrusion into their everyday world.
We are further indebted to our professional colleagues.
Roger W.
Shuy, Peg Griffin, and Rudolph Troike, of The Center for Applied
Linguistics, interacted with us at many stages in the formation, ana-
lysis, and completion of the study.
Hugh Rudorf, of the University of
Nebraska, and Terrance Graham, of Virginia Polytechnical Institute,
worked with us in setting up the original project and consulted with
us during various stages of the research.
William Labov, Ralph W.
Fasold, Riven t. McDavid, Jr., and Crawford Feagin made many helpful
comments on various aspects of our analysis.
No doubt, we will regret
that we have not always followed their advice.
Finally, we express our gratitude to those who took an active
interest in the form of the finished work.
Peggy Good was committed
to seeing our original research project through to completion at some
inconvenience to her own schedule of activities, and Begay Atkinson
and Diane Bartosh were given the task of editing our sometimes unwieldy
Our list of those who helped in one way or another could no
prose.
doubt be expanded considerably but it would still be incomplete.
It
is often the.brief question about a particular point of analysis, or
the quick reference to another work to consult, or a passing word of
encouragement that turns out to be a significant contribution to the
final product.
Malt Wolfram
Federal City College and
Center for Applied Linguistics
Donna Christian
Center for Applied Linguistics and
Georgetown University
March 1976
7
vi
tale of Contents
Introduction
CHAPTER ONE:
1
Overview
1
An Historical Sketch
The Linguistic Sample
IO
A Sociolinguistic Framework for the Study
CHAPTER TUO1
IS
of Appalachian English
Social Aspects of Variation
15
Linguistic Aspects of Variation
21
The Description of Appalachian Snglish
28
Toward a Definition of Appalachian Snglish
and Standard Snglish
29
Phonological Aspects
33
CHAPTER THREE:
33
Consonant Clusters
40
copu/a 4nd Auxiliary
45
R and I. Deletion
48
Th
50
Initial Segments
57
Initial h Retention in Auxiliaries and Pronouns
Features Involving Nasals
59
63
Other COnsonantai Features
Vowel Characteristics
64
69
Grammatical Fcaturea
CHAPTER FOUR:
69
Verbs
98
Adverbs
Negation
108
116
Nominals
Prepositions
126
Indirect Questions
127
Educational Implications of Dialect Diversity
CHAPTER FIVE:
Language Attitudes
vii
8
Dialect Diversity and Tasting
135
Language Arts and Dialect Diversity
145
Dialect Diversity and Reading
152
CHAPTER SIX:
Conclusion
161
APPENDICES
165
Appendix At
Interview Questionnaires
166
Appendix B:
Sample Informant Interview
169
Appendix C:
Complete List of Informants in Sample
184
BIBLIOGRAPHY
187
9
vi
Chapter One: Introduction
My sister Aggie looked at if foo when 1
was 'through and she yelled ()cif surprised
Were's a Any awl where we tve!"
Jim Comstock, Pe and Ma and Mader Kennedy
OVERVIEW
Language variation in American English is something that all speakers
of our language notice in one way or another. People notice it and comment
about it as they interact with individuals from different regions of the
United States and different social and ethnic groups. Educators also
confront it as they encounter the effect that dialect diversity may have
And professional
- on language skills relating to the education process.
linguists are concerned with it as they attempt to give a formal account
of the rules of English.
While language diversity among English varieties has been of interest
for some time, we have witnessed an extended descriptive concern for
social and ethnic varieties of American English in recent years. Despite
the growing concern for understanding the linguistic structure of social
Some non-mainstream vari-
varieties, certain needs are still apparent.
eties, such as Vernacular Black English, have been the object of a great
deal of attention while others, particularly those with strong regional
ties, have been virtually ignored. One of these still neglected geo-
It is well Inbwn that this area is one
graphical areas is Appalachia.
of the most linguistically divergent, yet it has been accorded minimal
descriptive attention in contemporary studies.
The difference between the English spoken in this loosely defined
area and other varieties is well recognivsd by pcople from other areas
as they travel through the Appalachian region or have occasion to meet
Unfortunately,poor imitations and
people who have come from there.
stereotypes of the language have been popularized irt media presentations
Such differences are also noticed
depicting life in this mountain range.
by the people of Appalachia as they compare their own speech to that
1
1 0
Description:descriptive aspects which we have treated in little or no detail. This book originally developed from one part of a final research report, Sociolinguistic Variables in Appalachian Dialects, carried out under contract NIE-C-74-0026 with the National Institute of Education. 0/10, from June 1974 - Aug
