Analyzing Media Messages: Using Quantitative Content Analysis in Research 2nd Edition (Lea Communication Series)

247 Pages·2005·17.28 MB·English

by  Daniel Riffe

ANALYZING MEDIA MESSAGES
Using Quantitative Content Analysis
in Research
Second Edilion
Daniel Riffe
Ohio Univeniry
Stephen Lacy
Michigan Srate U"i...",s;ty
),'rtderick G. )<'ico
Michigan SUlIe U"ivusjry
IAWK.!'....CEI::llLlMlI)IASSOCJ,\,T&S,PU81.1SH.I!RS
110101"....1>,10'...J.....f ,.-don
- _--_
---___,- ... --
~Cl_",
_..._.. -_lOIt........__..._.... ......
.....
-.. ---
0-_-_....._
.-
..
'
,IMrJ
-- h_' .-
'","'e-.-c
........__,_. __.._I
.. _:bod'"
.-.....,."...,...,._c.....
• _ lUA__-J
-.
~-_._
I'lllNo.iOlt'm·,, ,oL_l
ISlINo._»M~I"" _1
" e- ......... Ie-.l<.h..~ :L.-..-....1-.1........'._..
'4 ,__ "
u, 1
.,... 11,__ 111,_. N.U!A'._....
-
_--_"_""'"
_
.. __
.........
'----~--
-. .....
...
~ • I , I • • • , ,
lbl;"!RiJfr:
For Ib,......Tt4,and EIiD
SIqNnl..acy:
ForI.P. B)WID.N.P. D&vi$,-.1A.G.Smilb
"" FrnlFICII:
'''"~''''I,.
Bajuai..MIl FaitI'I
Contents
,.,..
•
......
,
1 ~
2 ~e-..NoIo/)'su.." So<iaISrimn'T..,j .U.
""""'if
J _0uift0UtI"C_
..
4 "'~"""'t_N "
5 "
6 Re/UJbilily on
7 v,,/UJi'1 ,~
•
,
Da"'hldylil '"
c""""," M'
"_f<_' n.
....
m
""....1....
'"
•
-.
'" •s. ,s--'t,··,"'-:>•
I M~2.5'~~ .j... :~E::-"..~-~ .,",,,,I&;"'Io>;!r",'--~'"~Q8.-~~Q"-.n'-,-O,',"'j'\':.;.,:
,2. .S~"~s_,.~Q.~i;·g2 ~l,J'~~~'<~~'"
_~._ ~. ~< 0
n.~-f~".'-~g~sn-~a.~'~·.~. ~ ~sPi"."_~-i,,a29~~-
a_l:i,i:~~~ g"~ ~.!:a.~.~
.. n
3~f~~,~~Sifl~,,_i':~:1' Elfi~j';·~.f~t
lS~g ~-8~~~2 ~ 1~~Q.~~~i~~1>
g~~~~..~~~~~~~;~ !a~-.""~~.~~~
~.~~ _~.~~ ~~
~n§..~.~.,.~.1;Q.2~.,~n~ ~ i.·.~.~~; 8+81-
6..~a' ~"~n~.o
l!gt..l.,~,,~lil~l~r8~-;:;"' -1:iil'.~. i-;~<g,,~n,
~
.9.. ;_t:";'..,l;5;w~,.~!if -o~1!:·.i..~.. r_",.'_~', ="J0'88"8."~t~l:1
.. ~" ""!! "," a",~ ~ iJ'
.. -So' .'i"if" i"l_·,;;-'n -. i5." ;;"
'_"........,.."< .".0"_".. 0 n'.<"1.0 ••... i"ic""8l,C",'! ~
n!O;~ ,e,_.9 "" •.
.s. ~_g~~~ai~i;fO~l .K...~a~ ;a:;j.,gH~o~l,a...!~!i~""s,Qt.
•, •,__,,_,.,0a,=~..:.".1.:.~-.I'-:,~:,(r";i'"'~i-'S'.~'.'~,2sa,:e.1...8.-,:-I,_~~]n,'isil·S.l._,C"'"-.~0.-..!'.."~-0~a·
"<>il"e ..-.. '
1~~!j·~I~~~~.o!...! -(llr;'l" 111~1~a:1
~,~r. 4ril~~I~.1 tigIJr~~'11~
~,~~~ ~8.[-gE:~~~~ ~,,>:~<T~_g:I!!_i>~
ti~r s~~~t:g~~ ~i8~~~tg§.~~
• " ~ •... 8.~~~ ~l~~~.~~~~~..s"i',~"o!,~,
,
hoped10accomplishtheJaue,th",ogbd....,''''''''''elangulgelllUby
"Ume",.,
pr,,,iding mpleo--<>f=enrand "c1as.ic~ studico---loil-
lnmat. J'fobkm.and 10,1""•. We ",c rhe bookasI ",I",..yl.~l 10<
couron in contenllnaly';., I ,apple"",,,,_lr••1rOO" ....."'h molb"ch
CQu'lIe.I.llldau.efulI'rl=n<:er",followreuan:heninrna"communi·
,,"tionfkld,.p;.1;t;cal.cic,",c.andolhc,SO<';llandhehavionlsci"""".
""",view
In,his1>oסi:......beglllwithan ofthefieldof",IU.:ommun;·
cuion "''''lreh. c"'pbllSi>.ingthe e<nfi1lli,y ofceo«o, .....Iy.;. '0that
fieldII><!itsapplicabilityinOll>trdiocipli.nes.Wethendevelop'fonnal
definition ofcOIllen,anuyoi.,cuminin. itsterm.IninltOdllCC impor
tllllprindpl..infllCIlSUr<:"'CIIl,dIll",,"Iy.i.,andinf.rence.Inc/lapler
3 (Ihi, ""Inmoj. we describe the Ilrf'" involved in duisning I iludy.
•"..,Iudingwith...ric.ofGue'li"",th., provideIII>OdeIforconducl
".ge
ingqo"",;..,i""co'''.nl ...Iysi,. Wl,h,lie oc' byIh.,.., introouc
loryoh."'....inthen:mainlul'I.We••plo«ruut.hIl$ueoIng'<lll«
doplh.TlIe..,Indude"",.wttmon'.o.fit>dlng.ppropriateunit'of<on
toni an4<l<velO(1lngrul..for..,igningIIIose unilS",o.tegori..;$Om
.n
pling.o...1«tingfrom poosible.on'enlonlya,m""h.,I'""tdtd;
rtIi.blIIIy.oren",ring'haliudl"idu.l,applyI"llllt"ooy'.codingrul..
ob!alnIlie.."'""" uI,.;data"".1yOl',o••pplyIIIJI.pprop.1lte"Ill";••1
lechnique,; ..Iiduy.o.lh. Ihoo"";.11 .ndprllClic.1,Ignincanoeoflite
""dy', finding'; ond l«h".,.ogy. o. 'he Ule ofcompu'e.. in ...nten'
....Iy.,•.
WeOW<'tMols'0manyfor klng'hi'bookpoSllbl<:ourfriends..
'--"WI.noeE.lba"rnAU""I I"".whoh..e wo,hdpOII.o,lywithU$
onlIIefits'andsecond«lI'lon.ofliltbook;",aohmwoo,"ughlu,con_
,.." Dlly,i'_Do...14 L. Show. Eug."" F. Sh.w. W.yne Donlelson,
11m.. Tlnbnl. G. CI.velllOdWllholl. on<l D"idW.....--<:oIl••gu""
whoprovldtd'uuestinn,onIm",o>Ingtilebook;andourIIudenJ1who
loughtu,themoll.bou'l.achingtonlenlan.ly.i,.Fin.lly.OUIdee,,",,'
.ppreclatlongOCltoourf....iIi..whoof'enwonderw!le'hetwedo.ny_
lhlngbut.ootenl.n.ly."
-DrJoltiRiff.
-S'OpMO Uu:ty
_F",t!uldrG. Fil:o
1
Introduction
C"",iderlIIerichdi,...iryoffoe..ofl!IefollO'V;~.$Indies,allof,!>em
....mp...ofqUlntill.lh'.COOltnllnolysi.ICtO$S• r.,'~ad.""riod:
• Inthelate 1940s.",..,mi'ler.euminedchillie;ntbein'ema,;"".1
polit;cal Iyllem by k>ol;ing ., 60 yem "reditorial. in five pres,;••
world ~'p.",,",. Lao.wen ...... found IwoCO""""""n' ''''00' in til<
.ditori..b·langu••.........,n..,'ing joe,••'ingnati".....li.'" and growthof
"",Ic,lriandoclnn<ll_tha, _med'n<uppon lIIeirhypocb<.i. ,h., in_
I<mlti""al"""i.Jrevolutionhad bet"b<t:winJforJOm<'ime(1........11.
Lern..... '" ilclsola Pool. 1952).
• Enmini",thefirstS hrofbre.king.......co....ao;.onCNN.ABC.
CBS.100NBC.,,,,,.orch.,,'bowedhowtheSeptemberIJterrorisma{
tactSOjolledjoumaliwthl'theyob.nOOne<!tnditional roICllI""'lin
dard•. reponing pef$()Oll thoughll and rumors aDd ",inll lnonymou.
$(1"':0.(Reynolds&. Barnett,2003).
Jm.
• Sinc. til<Proj.." forEx••llooc.inJournall,m,'rese.rch"'.
ganiu,i""un<!<rwri".n by,II<PewChorilObl<Tru.", halc..riodOn'a
numberofmajor"udi..ofn....co'·...og.Clpl<wingth.impac'ofOWn·
....hip'yp"""loc&ltcle.i,i011I\CW,a,",.n,..co.crqcoflhew..inIraq
and,hewar"",errori'm.'0nam..fcw(set:hUp:!lwww,joom&li'm.oraJ
fCSOOrc.slrcsun:hlreporu). Similarly. "pIIblie.~ Meivic," <w Mcitiun_
balC<l"journalism"",a.i"goal,b.re'itoli..,iooorciviclife;anumber
of..udie,ha....amine<!howefronsar.mOl1if..lCdinprin,andbroad·
ca" ncw.eo••"'g.IM....y & Hu" 20(2).
• Analy.i' ofpilot<»ofAfrican A.....ic.n.in Uf., N..."wuk. and
Tim. during....'15,h~nrchronicledthe""""ingroieofBlack>inall
,
.'po"I>
of American society fmm the early 10 tile la,e 20lh century
(Lelter.lSmilh. t990).
• ......Iy~in&.probability Ampleof2.696U.s, new.paperonicles
d.."" from. J'OP\llllionofitems identir>ed by ~l.,·.", key "<>r<b••
•tudy(KutAlMoy,2002)dl)Cllrnente<!.co",i'tentne&l,i•• pon""YII
offundamentali.tOri,,;.", f'om 1980umil2000,
• A"ndy(Riff.,Goldson.SaAIOll.&;Yd. 19119)ofchllVle,,"role.in
I.te-isionodvert,singduringSalurdaymOl'liinscllildn:n',pmgrarnmins
""""flCC
repontdI rem.lealld.lhnic fa'sm.lle,thanthose&fOUl'" pres·
encein Ih....l- r1d population IS,.Oec,.din""nsu.datI.
• 1\'••mof arcben(Pfa.ofII..20(4)anllyudwhclhcrembe<l·
<led;o..m1Ii...coveredOpcnllioo"""'IiFm:<lom"mol<.fovonbly thin
jOllmlli,lScoweringIh.«lnfliCIfrom Idis"",,,,,and whethe'printcov
erageofthatope....'io" differed from ",po"i". during"'e lst doYIof
'i""
Opetal'On~EI>dl1rin&Fre<:dom~andOpe.... "o...n S"mn:
• ASoulherndaily n<WSpIJ>ftJKlblishcr.s,ungby.rili.i,m,,ho,hi.
pope' wo. e1.es<i,oIy negui"" in .o""rlge oftho Af'ican ADI<ri.an
con,muoi,y,'cMom' .m.i..iol>Cd one: of!he lulllor< of'hi' Ic:<' to me..ure
co,.....g.of gmen'ofthecommunilY.
• UsingmlguineoniclescilNin~ Road"" G~ido1ohriodicnl
Ute""u",. '....rehcn (Simmon, &; t"",,'Y. 1990) charoctori7"'d lho
miftingpublicimageofinte'oltioOllllerrori<mduring'he 198010 1988
period.
• A leamof"""""'her<lookN"'~ien,",nelll.in'wotypesofnelllS_
papcnmarting"'heendpoio,"00lheeon,iouumofjournali"ie,••pon_
.il>ili'y.~Sorp,ilingly,lahloidl'>OW.paper<(No'IMOII",!ui"" IndSlur)
were"00'panicuJuly'inferior',omore're<ptclJble'JlCwspapcr<"(i.e..
7T"",
,he/oleo.' York Ind Philadelphia Inquirer), in Imoontof"'entifoc
reponing, IlthouJII p tige papers"'.remorecomprehensiveIudrig-
orou, io ICK:nceco", e (E'an" Krippendorff. Yooo, POIlu,VlY. &;
Thoma., 1990. p. ll~).
" Finlily.tho 199~ to1OOOco\'WlgeofIOd.ti"ue,(pollu!;on,po"
eny. lUId inclTee"';on) "-IS conten' anlly,N by Kcn<kki (2OOl) fOt
dominom"f"""",:"definN ~"pcrsi...n,p.onemlofpruemo'ion.em·
ph......and«el..ion"(Gi'lin, 1980.p. 7)lhalmuemoreulien,apar_
,ieul.. "problem d<fo"'t'''''. conw in'e'J'fClO!'''''. mon.l o..olUllioo"
IDdrecommend.lionfoc solo'i""(Eotmlo, 1993, p.~2). Co..cIOlesel·
dom id<nliflCdelu'" oreffccu foc the i$Sue!.nordid i'of'en,nu..'
thehkcllhoodthl' ,he prohlem,cOllId bewl>'ed.
,
Although,h.""'tudi",differinpurp<><e(O<)·<:all«lbasic"o.e.ln;h,OJ"
"FP]i.dre<elrt:h,..inthe.'!.eofU","ud~"ommi..i<lRrobytheSoutb_
ern new.pope. publisher). focus, tc<:hoi'luClI cmpl<>ycd, ODd ""i.otitic
rigor. they havechor"lCriud. vUlC1y ofapplication> P'».iblc: wlUl
quo",;">!,,,,,"""'"n'"Mlyd•.• researchrnelhoddc:fincdinbrief.."t!Ie
.y"erna6c...ignmentofcommuni.a';oncoo,ent toCI,.,orieloccord
;ng10",1e".lIdtileanalysi,ofrela'i"".hip.involving,boseClt.SOfie<
",iOIlSllli'tical IDetllod"M
Usually,but1)0(.1"'"yl,CORle'"l/U.lysisillll<>!,·esdrawingI'qln'senlll
till.umplellofCOOlen,.lJainingc«Ien10use till:nleg"" rulesdevel
op«! '0 me.a.utt or .dkd <liff.....II<•• in _ ..n•••nd mounring ~
",lio";I;ly (opumem Of £lability 0"" Ii_) of«"k.,i.,in ""plying thc
ruI....Thed>1llcollected;nI'1uanli,.,i",.""len<"".lY lrCIhocn",.oUy
anllyzedto&$enbewhatare'YPiocllpan.msorcbaraclcri.cic$ortoiden_
tifyimporlonlrelationshipsamongtil<OOnl<nt'l....litie$...mioed.Iftile
categoriesandrulesa",cor>ceplUallyand~lic.1IY""",ndand.'"",Ii·
ably opplied. the rese"",ber i""re..... the chance Ihal lbe 'Iud~ results
..ill bevalid(e.g..Iblltheo/l$erYedp.uemoaremeaningful).
ThesuJellldefinitionjustJlf=ntMdeliberuelylock,lI1ymenti""
ofthe'pttifiegoalofthe....,_IIet.,iogqOWlIi"Ii""COnlenl....1y,i.
(e.g.•lOleSl.hypothe,i,lboulinlernalio...1,...illr.volutionOr10de·
..ribe medii portrlyll ofmitIOriIi..), any 'pe<ifica'iooof.pproprilte
Iypes ofcommunicllion 10 be...mined (e.g.• ,bemcs orI."'rti...... in
preOligene"'pape. edilorial.ortelevision cornmereill,). Ihe Iypesof
conlenlqu,litie.explorul(e.,..pllcemen,Of le"thofI new, ilemor
preso""eofI dominlnlorcompelingfrome).ortbe'ypesofinfe..""".
Iho< will bedn..n from thee""tentlfUlly,i,dati (e.lI.. ch'l'IC1.cri~in,
chanlle in the global ",ciopnlillcil clim.",acrt>si 60yea" ofimeml
tionllalflin00tbebui,oflanSlLlseinnew.pape.edil"';':h.conclud·
ingth.otlOuni.m i.beins used inthec.,tinSofmlnorilyc""rac,,,•• in
Idverti.inS limed II children, or'u8llcstinS Ihal media ""nltibule 10
puhlie Ip.thy aboul ill problem. hy failinS 10 "USB"" c.u,..,
effe<lO.ormean,of lotioo).
Such.pecificationoflerm,i.....nll.llO.th""",ghdefinilion.How
.'·cr, before.morecomp",hensi,·.definitionofIbi, venllil.",selreh
mClhodi.developedinchapltr2(Ihis...,lome), inIbisc","pler, ""flnl
offer.briefo'·.rvi....oftile'01.ofeonl.nlInalysi.iomao.""mmoni·
eo,ioor.searchfollo..'edbynample.ofbowcon",ol.nlly.i.hasbeen
uoedinoth<,field, Inddiscipli"u.
•
/M,SSCOMMUNICATION RESEARCH
Whereas ""bolus ....1 aw""""b rna,.communi,ati"" mc<lag•• from
1""'f'<'C,ive!"",meusoci.'e ",lib !behumanities (e.g., •• l'<enln", or
art). mlnyO<h.....mploy asocial scien""aJ>P"lKh bar.edinempirical
obsen'I';OOlnd mealnmncnl. Wha,lII., mcan.,~pic.IJyi,tho! the$<:
,escarchcn id""lify 'l"""iOM or problem< (eilh<r derived from tIl.
",hollllylite"'l"~orDCCOninginappliedmlS.communication).iden
tifyconceptstha,"in,1Ieory" maybe involvedoratwork••00pf'OlJO'C
possible.aplan";on'orrcl;Olion'b;p.""""'.ronecpU.ImplausibleC>
planationsaredi""lIdcd,andviabl."""••esledempiric.Hy.witb theo
re,i.alconcept. "",..mu,ur'«!inCOfN:fCle,o!»ervllbleterIn••
If mcmbe", of ethni<: min<ni,y, r.".cumpie. ",;co COncern !hOI
tlM:yOf.undcrr.p nl.dinD,,,'ISmediacOIIlent(i"tamSof,lI<i,Ccn_
.... ""mlltrs),.rEXarchc:rmay pf<lPG'<' thaI racism i. at wort orthat
mcml>ersof,bo;ethnicminority.",onderrcprc.scnted in lhoseoocupa
tionalgroup.'hatservemoreoften..,no....>OII=Ointilt"".....Eathof
thoot inltrprtlltion, ore'pl.....tioo. ;""oIve. diffe,ent concepu thll
canbe"optratiolUlliz.ed··intomeaS~"'menl pmced~rt" andeach.,.obe
te.tedempirkanY.asrtotarchersdidinthecontenlanalyjC.highlighted
previou.ly.
l'utanoth.,....y.",planllion.for problem.or""e"i"".for ,uchre_
searellt..at.lOUgh'andderi.,cdlhmughdirec'andobjective_rva_
tion and me••urem.n, rather than through 0...·• ,.a"",ing. in,ui,ion,
.hort.
,c
faith, idwloa;y,orco""ictiOll. In tiIesr: rna.. communic.tion
oearehera employ ...hat is "adilionally referre<! to a. 'he ",;on,itic
me'hod. ThecenturiCll-olddistinction bel.....n idMli_ (.n approach
tho<..rgu..'hal"'"mindandiuide'"are"tiltul\ima",SOUre.andcrite
riaofkno"'lcdlle*).nd"..pl,ici4..(anapproachtha,arguesth..obser·
vation and e.perimenll'ion yield tnowledge) continnes to hold the
a""ntionofth_int.re"cdin""i"""'aIDlYorthe,tndyofkno...ledg.
(\'bg', 1999."".96, 1].6).
Another imponan, d;"i"'lioo in..ol.... re<!uclioni.rn and holilm.
Much of rna" commu"ication """ial "..icncc adlltre. implicitly to a
ffliuclioniJrvie_theargumentthai undenundingcomCIIlhl'Ollghre
docing • phenomenon to ,m.lle., more ba.ic, ind;vidu.ll"'rlS(Yogi.
1999, p. 2311)-'ather "'an /tqJi,,,,, an ...omption that ...hoICII.,.o be
more than or different from the 10m of thei, individual pam (Vog,-