Analytical and Practical Aspects of Drug Testing in Hair (International Forensic Science and Investigation)

396 Pages·2006·7.3 MB·English

by  Pascal Kintz

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Analytical and
Practical Aspects of
Drug Testing in Hair
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FORENSIC SCIENCE SERIES
Series Editor
Robert Gaensslen, Ph.D.
Professor and Director
Graduate Studies in Forensic Science
University of Illinois at Chicago
Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.
Analytical and Practical Aspects of Drug Testing in Hair, edited by Pascal Kintz
Bitemark Evidence, edited by Robert B. J. Dorion
Forensic Computer Crime Investigation, edited by Thomas A. Johnson
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Analytical and
Practical Aspects of
Drug Testing in Hair
Edited by
Pascal Kintz
Boca Raton London New York
CRC is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group,
an informa business
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CRC Press
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© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
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International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-6450-7 (Hardcover)
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-6450-1 (Hardcover)
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Kintz, Pascal.
Analytical and practical aspects of drug testing in hair / Pascal Kintz.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-6450-7 (alk. paper)
1. Hair--Analysis. 2. Drugs--Analysis. 3. Chemistry, Forensic. I. Title.
RB47.5.K56 2006
363.25’62--dc22 2006044577
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Foreword
Given the limitations of self-reports on drug use, testing for drugs of abuse is
important for most clinical and forensic toxicological situations, both for assessing
the reality of the intoxication and for evaluation of the level of drug impairment.
It is generally accepted that chemical testing of biological fluids is the most
objective means of diagnosis of drug use. The presence of a drug analyte in a
biological specimen can be used to document exposure. The standard in drug
testing is the immunoassay screen, followed by the gas chromatographic-mass
spectrometric confirmation conducted on a urine sample. In recent years, remark-
able advances in sensitive analytical techniques have enabled the analysis of drugs
in unconventional biological specimens such as hair. The advantages of this
sample over traditional media, like urine and blood, are obvious: collection is
noninvasive, relatively easy to perform, and in forensic situations it can be achieved
under close supervision of law enforcement officers to prevent adulteration or
substitution. Moreover, the window of drug detection is dramatically extended to
weeks, months, or even years when testing hair. It appears that the value of
alternative-specimens analysis for the identification of drug users is steadily
gaining recognition. This can be seen from its growing use in preemployment
screening, in forensic sciences, in traffic medicine, in clinical applications, and
for doping control.
Since the first edition of the book Drug Testing in Hair was published in 1996,
numerous advances have been introduced in this specific topic of science. The years
1995–1996 were those of cannabis detection. The 1997–1998 period was the golden
time for benzodiazepines detection, followed by 1999–2000 and the applications in
doping control. With the development of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectro-
metry (LC-MS/MS), the most recent period (2003–2005) is characterized by the
detection in hair of a single exposure and the related applications in drug-facilitated
crimes. This revised edition, Analytical and Practical Aspects of Drug Testing in
Hair, reviews all of these developments as well as the validation of analytical
procedures and the interpretation of data.
After the International Association of Forensic Toxicologists (TIAFT) workshop
in Abu Dhabi in 1995, it was decided to create the Society of Hair Testing. This
was done late in December 1995 in Strasbourg, France, and, since that date, the
society has organized both scientific and practical meetings each year. It is also
responsible for proposing to its members an annual quality control procedure on
authentic hair specimens. Various consensuses have also been published in the
scientific literature. Under the leadership of the successive presidents (Hans Sachs,
Christian Staub, and now Carmen Jurado), the society has contributed to major
progress in the field.
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Special thanks must go to all of the international authors who have agreed to
write a chapter to what, I hope, is a worthwhile book. As was the case in the first
edition, various opinions, sometimes controversial or contradictory, have emerged
among the different authors. I find it helpful to define the areas of agreement among
the active investigators and what issues require further efforts to reach a consensus.
Pascal Kintz
TIAFT President
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Preface
“Where have you been? I can hardly recognize you,” might be the greeting of a
mentor to an infrequent visit from a junior colleague. This would have been very
appropriate 25 years ago were hair analysis under discussion. Few analytical toxi-
cologists then considered hair as a desirable specimen for routine analyses. Some
very few dabbled with Beethoven’s or Napoleon’s hairs, but they were the exceptions.
Obtaining the samples was not the problem. These could be obtained easily. How
to get acceptable results was the challenge.
The analytical techniques then in use (thin-layer chromatography [TLC], gas
chromatography [GC], high-performance liquid chromatography [HPLC]) were
quite adequate for their current use but were much too insensitive if hair was to be
analyzed. The advent of immunoassays changed the analytical scene markedly. The
increased sensitivity they provided made hair analysis feasible. Applying immuno-
assays to hair analysis soon revealed another limitation and deficiency. Although
sensitivity became realistic, specificity was lacking. Creative investigators then
recognized that the esoteric mass spectrometry (MS) that was coming into greater
use could provide the desired sensitivity and specificity.
As practitioners developed expertise and funding became more available, they
moved forward with hyphenated mass-spectrometric procedures — GC-MS,
GC-MS/MS, and HPLC-MS/MS. Applying these techniques to hair analysis ensured
the desired sensitive and specific results. The pursuit of zero began.
Routine analysis of hair became a reality when incorporation of automated
sample-handling equipment became realistic. “Look, Ma, no hands!” was now
commonplace. Few toxicologists recognize that this now-robotic procedure is a real
threat to their professional existence.
As the technology of hair analysis has grown, so has its applications. Readers
of this volume will find authors’ suggestions that will resolve many questions. Has
the patient been taking his medication? How often is this omitted? Are unborn
children harmed when pregnant women use drugs? Does the use of drugs enhance
an athlete’s performance? Are females more susceptible to sex that might otherwise
be unwelcome because they are surreptitiously given a drug? How do drugs affect
criminals? When and for how long have drugs influenced work performance?
Answers to these and ever so many other questions can be provided by hair analyses.
Very accomplished practitioners pass on their expertise to readers of this volume.
Theirs is not the last word, but they do reflect the present state of the art, which is
ever changing. Without a doubt, there will be progress as time goes by. However,
it is comforting to have the easy access to the current status that this volume provides
the reader.
Irving Sunshine, Ph.D.
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Contributors
Francis Billault Jean-Pierre Goullé
Laboratoire TOXLAB Laboratoire de Pharmacocinetique et de
Paris, France Toxicology Cliniques
Group Hospitalier du Havre
Thomas Cairns Havre, France
Psychemedics Corporation
Culver City, California Virginia Hill
Psychemedics Corporation
Marjorie Chèze Culver City, California
Laboratoire TOXLAB
Carmen Jurado
Paris, France
Ministerio de Justicia
Vincent Cirimele Seville, Spain
Laboratoire ChemTox
David A. Kidwell
Illkirch, France
Naval Research Laboratory
Rafael de la Torre Washington, D.C.
Institut Municipial d’Investigació (IMIM)
Pascal Kintz
and
X’pertise Consulting
Universitat Pompeu Fabra
Laboratoire ChemTox
Barcelona, Spain
Illkirch, France
Mark Deveaux
Robert Kronstrand
Laboratoire TOXLAB
National Board of Forensic Medicine
Paris, France
Department of Forensic Genetics and
Forensic Chemistry
Henrik Druid
Linköping, Sweden
Department of Forensic Medicine
Karolinska Institutet Manfred R. Moeller
Stockholm, Sweden Saarland University Hospital
Homburg, Germany
Gaëlle Duffort
Laboratoire TOXLAB Gilbert Pepin
Paris, France Laboratoire TOXLAB
Paris, France
O´scar García-Algar
Pediatric Service, URIE Simona Pichini
Hospital del Mar Department of Drug Research and
and Evaluation
Universitat Autònoma Istituto Superiore di Sanità
Barcelona, Spain Rome, Italy