An anatomical basis for assessing human body composition

340 Pages·2006·13.5 MB·English

AN ANATOMICAL BASIS FOR ASSESSING HUMAN BODY COMPOSITION:
EVIDENCE FROM 25 DISSECTIONS.
ALAN D. MARTIN
B.Sc.(Hons.), Leeds University, 1965
M.A.Sc., University of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1967
THESIS SUBMITTED I N PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
i n the Department
0 f
KINESIOLOGY
0
ALAN D. MARTIN 1984
SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY
A l l r i g h t s reserved. This work may not be
reproduced i n whole o r i n p a r t , by photocopy
o r o t h e r means, without permission of t h e author.
APPROVAL
Name: Alan Desmond MARTIN
Degree : Doctor of Philosophy (Kines iology)
T i t l e of thesis: An anatomical basis for assessing human
body composition: evidence from 25 dissections.
Examining Committee:
Chairman : Dr. Parveen Eawa
Dr. W.D. Ross
Senior Supervisor
dr. A.J. ~ a v i s o n
Dr. T.W. Calvert
Dr. D. Stirling
Internal Examiner
Kinesiology Department
---
Dr. W.A. ~ t i i i
External Examiner
University of Arizona
/Zk@&) 3 /???
Date Approved:
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ABSTRACT
Contemporary methods f o r i n vivo assessment of human body
composition were examined i n the context of comprehensive
anthropometry on 25 f u l l y dissected cadavers aged 55 t o 94 years
( 6 male, 6 female, embalmed; 6 male, 7 fenale, unembalmed).
Measurements included b i l a t e r a l , repeated lengths, breadths,
g i r t h s and skinfold thicknesses on the i n t a c t cadaver; incised
depth of s k i n and subcutaneous adipose t i s s u e ; planimetric
assessment of skin area and d i r e c t measure of s k i n thickness;
anthroponetry during d i s s e c t i o n and determination of mass and
density of organs and a l l dissected t i s s u e s , by body segment.
Of t h e 42 d i s s e c t i o n s s i n c e 1843, i n which skin, adipose
t i s s u e (AT), muscle and bone were weighed, the 25 dissections of
t h i s study a r e the only ones accompanied by comprehensive
anthropometry. These data represent the most extensive
.
compilation of a d u l t t i s s u e masses t o date.
The following conclusions and reconmenda t i o n s a r e
warranted.
1. The proportions of t h e body with AT removed a r e
r e l a t i v e l y constant across samples and sexes. Muscle and bone a s
percentages of t h e adipose tissue-free mass (ATFM) were 49.3
(s.D. 5.7), 20.0 (2.0) and 47.8 (4.0), 21.4 (2.5) f o r males and
females respectively. Although small, t h i s v a r i a b i l i t y i n
composition, combined with an obtained bone d e n s i t y range twice
t h a t reported by previous workers, i s s u f f i c i e n t t o v i o l a t e the
s t r i n g e n t assumptions underlying the densitometric method. This
iii
l e a d s t o pronounced over- o r under-estimation of body f a t i n
i n d i v i d u a l s , such a s t h e negative f a t predicted i n some f o o t b a l l
players.
2: Skinfold c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y , from s k i n f o l d thickness and
incised depth, showed s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r - s i t e and inter-subject
differences.
3. Observation of i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n subcutaneous AT
p a t t e r n i n g suggests r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of arm, t o r s o and l e g s i t e s
i n f a t p r e d i c t i o n formulae. P r e d i c t i o n from a s i n g l e s i t e (e.g.
t r i c e p s ) o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n f r o n only upper body s i t e s i s c l e a r l y
unwarranted.
4. I n t e r n a l AT mass was s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d with
subcutaneous AT mass (r=.75 i n males, r=.89 i n females) w i t h 16%
'
of t o t a l ATM l o c a t e d i n t e r n a l l y .
5. Only two of n i n e s u r f a c e a r e a (SA) formulae f r o n the
l i t e r a t u r e predicted a mean SA s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t ( a t the
5% l e v e l ) from t h e mean of t h e measured s k i n a r e a s of s u b j e c t s '
of t h i s study.
6 . No sex d i f f e r e n c e i n d e n s i t y o f t h e f r e s h s k e l e t o n was
observed, o v e r a l l mean: 1.24 g/ml, S.D. 0.04 g/ml. A d e c l i n e i n
d e n s i t y with age corresponding t o a l o s s of s k e l e t a l mass of 120
g per decade w a s observed. Wrist width was t h e b e s t p r e d i c t o r of
s k e l e t a l nass.
DEDICATION
This work i s dedicated t o th,e twenty-seven Belgians who,
w i t h f o r e s i g h t and g e n e r o s i t y , donated t h e i r bodies t o the V r i j e
University Brussel, thus enabling t h i s work t o be c a r r i e d out.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A research study of t h i s complexity could not have been
successful without t h e e f f o r t s of many people. Thanks a r e due,
f i r s t and foremost, t o J a n Clarys and Don Drinkwater f o r t h e i r
comnitment and personal s a c r i f i c e , and t o Dr. W.D. Ross f o r the
i n s p i r a t i o n t o carry out t h i s project and f o r h i s unflagging
enth;siasn throughout t h e work. Also, I wish t o express my
g r a t i t u d e t o the d i s s e c t i o n team: E. van Humbeek, C. Demoortel,
R. Stein, F. van Bont, T. S i g n o r e l l i , P. de Ridder, M. Pauwels,
G. van d e r Veken, L. Hens, V. van Velthoven and H. Verbruggen
f o r t h e i r physical and technical contribution t o the p r o j e c t ,
and to N. Arras f o r her devotion t o the project and f o r her many
I
technical, s e c r e t a r i a l , and organizational s k i l l s .
I an indebted t o Prof. Dr. Roels ( I n s t i t u u t voor
Morfologie), Prof. Dr. Leduc (Dept. Motorische Revalidatie en
.
Kinesitherapie), Prof. D r . Massart (Dept. Analytische Scheikunde
en Bronatologie), Prof. Dr. d e Neuter (Dept. Medische
Microbiologie) who kindly loaned members of t h e i r s t a f f ; t o
Prof. Dr. R. Potvlieghe, Dr. E. Desmedt, J. van Drogenbroek
(Radiology Dept. A. Z. -V.U. B. 1, t o A. Berghmans f o r h i s technical
a s s i s t a n c e and t o Prof. Dr. Mulnard and E. Godefroid ( I n s t i t u t e
d1Anatomie U.L.B.) f o r providing p a r t of the cadaver population.
Special thanks a r e due t o Dr. A. R. Behnke f o r h i s guidance
and c r i t i c a l comments throughout t h i s work; a l s o t o Dr. J. E. L.
Carter and Dr. K. Bagnall f o r t h e i r comments on the f i r s t d r a f t
of t h i s manuscript, and t o the supervisory committee: D r . T.
Calvert, Dr. A. Davison and Dr. D. S t i r l i n g .
A grant was received from the V r i j e U n i v e r s i t e i t Brussel
and a Research Fellowship from the Belgian Ministry of National
Education, Dept. of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Cultural Relations; both a r e
g r a t e f u l l y acknowledged.
I n addition, some support f o r data a n a l y s i s was provided by
Fitness and Amateur Sport and by t h e Natural Sciences and
Engineering Council of Canada (A9402).
TABLE OF CONTENTS
.....................................................
ABSTRACT iii
.....................................................
DEDICATION v
..............................................
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v i
...............................................
L i s t of Tables x i i
...............................................
L i s t of Figures xv
................?...................................
PREFACE x v i i i
. ...............................
I CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION 1
......................
1.1 The Brussels Cadaver Study 12
.
I1 CHAPTE.R. .2. ..:. .S.U.B.J.E.C.T.S. .A..N.D. .M.E.T.H.O.D.S. .O.F. ..T.H.E ..B.R.U..SS.E.L.S. ..
STUDY 14
...................................
2.1 Introduction: 14
...........................
2.2 S u b j e c t s and Methods: 14
.......................................
2.3 Embalming 15
.......................................
2.4 Procedure 17
.................................
Anthropometry 17
......................................
2.5 D i s s e c t i o n 28
................................
2.6 Tissue Weighings 36
.................................................
2.7 40
............................
2.8 General Observations 41
. ......
I11 CHAPTER 3: GROSS TISSUE MASSES I N HUMAN ADULTS 44
....................................
3.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 44
....................
3.2 20th century d i s s e c t i o n d a t a 44
........
3.3 European d i s s e c t i o n s of t h e 19th century 47
.. .....
3.4 The concept of t h e adipose tissue-free mass 52
. ................
I V CHAPTER THE ESTIMATION OF BODY FAT 58
v i i i
....................................
4.1 INTRODUCTION 58
...................
4.2 Techniques f o r f a t estimation 60
................................
4.3 T o t a l Body Water 60
.............................
4.4 Whole Body Counting 63
....................................
4.5 Densitometry 65
...
4.6 Analysis of Variation i n the Fat-Free Density 72
..........
4.7 Variation i n the cornpositon of the FFM 75
................
4.8 Evidence from the Brussels study 78
........................
4.9 Water content of t h e FFM 83
4.1 Variat.io..n. .i .n. .th..e. .d.e.n.s.i.t.y. .o.f ..th..e. .c.o.n.s.t.i.t.u.e.n.t.s. o..f ..
the FFM 83
...................................
4.11 Implications 87
4.12 E f f e c t. ..o.f. ..v.a.r.i.a.t i.o.n.. ..i .n. ..th.e. ...FF.D. ...o.n. ..f.a.t. .
estimation 89
.....................................
Conclusion 90
. .............................
V CHAPTER 5: ADIPO$E TISSUE 92
....................................
5.1 INTRODUCTION 92
5.2 Assunp.t.io.n..s. .u..n.d.e.r.l.y.in..g. ..t.h.e. ..u.s.e. ..o.f. ..s.k.i.n.f.o.l.d.
c a l i p e r s 93
...............................
COMPRESSIBILITY 93
................
5.3 Evidence from the Brussels study 98
.................................
5.4 SKIN THICKNESS 110
......................
5.5 ADIPOSE TISSUE PATTERNING 117
........
5.6 CONSTANT FAT FRACTION I N ADIPOSE' TISSUE 128
......................
5.7 INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FAT 131
........................
5.8 SKINFOLDS AND BODY SIZE 135
..........
5.9 The prediction of adipose t i s s u e mass 138
........................................
5.1 SUMMARY 139