Table Of ContentAmphorae in
The Eastern
Mediterranean
Hakan Öniz
Archaeopress Archaeology
Archaeopress Publishing Ltd
Gordon House
276 Banbury Road
Oxford OX2 7ED
www.archaeopress.com
ISBN 978 1 78491 516 2
ISBN 978 1 78491 517 9 (e-Pdf)
© Archaeopress and Hakan Öniz 2016
Translation: Tayanç Andy Akgün
Graphic: Günay Dönmez and Mehmet Oral
3D Modelling: Ergün Şimşek
Cover Photo: Tahsin Ceylan
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the copyright owners.
Printed in England by Oxuniprint, Oxford
This book is available direct from Archaeopress or from our website www.archaeopress.com
Contents
List of Figures ...................................................................................................................................................iii
Preface ..............................................................................................................................................................v
1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................1
2. What is Amphora? ........................................................................................................................................1
3. The Entrance of Terracotta in People’s Lives ...............................................................................................2
4. The Potter’s Wheel and Early Amphora Examples .......................................................................................3
4.1. 3000 BC – The Amphora of Eskişehir Küllüoba ...........................................................................................................4
4.2 3000-2000 BC International Trade Kültepe-Kaniş and Troy ......................................................................................4
4.3 2000 BC – Amphorae in Syria-Palestine and Central Anatolia ..................................................................................5
5. Traditional Ceramic Production and Trade: Cyprus and Anatolia ...............................................................6
5.1 An Example of Traditional Ceramic Production from Cyprus ..................................................................................6
5.2. An Example of Traditional Usage of an Amphora from Trabzon .............................................................................7
6. Contents Carried Inside Amphorae ..............................................................................................................7
6.1 A Look at the Contents Carried ......................................................................................................................................7
6.2 Olive Oil ..............................................................................................................................................................................8
6.3 Olives ...................................................................................................................................................................................8
6.4 Beer ....................................................................................................................................................................................8
6.5 Wine ....................................................................................................................................................................................8
6.6. Fermented Fish Sauces: Garum, Muria and Liquamen .................................................................................................9
7. Graffiti, Dipinti and Pictures on Amphorae ................................................................................................10
7.1 Dipinti ...............................................................................................................................................................................10
7.2 Graffiti ..............................................................................................................................................................................10
7.3 Picture and Decorative Techniques on Amphorae ....................................................................................................10
8. Amphora Stamps ..........................................................................................................................................11
8.1. Some Stamped Amphorae from Antalya Museum ...................................................................................................12
9. Wine-Making and Amphorae .......................................................................................................................13
10. Standardization of Amphora Forms and Imitation Amphorae .................................................................14
11. Sealing Techniques for Amphorae .............................................................................................................15
12. Amphora Bases and Transportation ..........................................................................................................17
13. Amphora Kilns ...........................................................................................................................................18
14. Amphora Production in Lycia, Pamphylia and Cilicia (Map 1) ..................................................................19
14.1. Amphora Kilns and Amphorae in Lycia ...................................................................................................................19
14.2. Amphora Kilns and Amphorae in Pamphylia ..........................................................................................................19
14.3. Amphora Kilns and Amphorae in Cilicia ..................................................................................................................22
14.3.1 Some Amphorae Produced, or Thought to Have Been Produced, in Cilicia ...............................................22
14.3.2 Amphora Kilns in Rough Cilicia ........................................................................................................................24
14.3.3 Amphora Kilns in Cilicia Pedias ........................................................................................................................25
14.3.4 Other Possible Kiln Areas in Cilicia .................................................................................................................25
15. Amphora Kilns in the North Levant-Hatay Region ...................................................................................................27
15.a. Hatay-Samandağ / Çevlik-Seleuica Pieria ........................................................................................................27
15. b. Hatay-Samandağ / Arsuz-Rhosus ......................................................................................................................27
16. Underwater Research on the Coasts of Lycia, Pamphylia and Cilicia .......................................................27
16.1. Shipwrecks Loaded with Amphorae Mentioned in the Book ...............................................................................27
i
16.2. Methods Used in Research .........................................................................................................................................27
17 . Amphorae Found around the Coasts of Lycia, Pamphylia and Cilicia between 2011 and 2015 ..............31
18. Amphorae Kept in Storage at Antalya Museum ......................................................................................123
19. Aydın Aytuğ Collection............................................................................................................................165
20. Examples of Mediterranean Commercial Amphorae .............................................................................175
References .....................................................................................................................................................190
ii
List of Figures and Maps
Fig. 1 The Bronze Age cube tomb, in an area which remains under water, off Avşa Island’s Monastery area coastline. ..............3
Fig. 2 The cube tomb, numbered J17, Afyonkarahisar-Bayat / the necropolis of Dedemezar, which dates back to the Middle
Bronze Age (Üyümez et al, 2010: 127). . .............................................................................................................................................3
Fig. 3 A late example of a potter’s wheel table, broken. This disc-shaped basalt potter’s wheel table was found inside a pot, in
Kilokki Tarlası A1 Trench, in Ilısu Dam Iron Age excavations. ......................................................................................................4
Fig. 4 The amphora dating back to Küllüoba IIIC period (2400-2300 BC) – Eskişehir Küllüoba excavations. ...................................4
Fig. 5 Form of Canaanite Amphora (Modelling: Ergün Şimşek. ...............................................................................................................5
Fig. 6a The Inandıktepe Vase (17th-16th centuries BC) which was found in the Hittite cult center of Hanhana in Çankırı. There
are depictions of amphorae on the vase. ..........................................................................................................................................5
Fig. 6b The drawing of depictions on the Inandıktepe Vase .......................................................................................................................6
Fig. 7 Nineteenth-century pottery making, both manually and using the potter’s wheel, in Vuda village on Cyprus. ................6
Fig. 8 Amphorae at the port of Trabzon, Black Sea coast of Turkey. .......................................................................................................7
Fig. 9 Sinop and Syrian amphorae with ornamentation, found in the Gaziantep Zeugma excavations. ........................................11
Fig. 10 Stamp 1 ................................................................................................................................................................................................12
Fig. 11 Stamp 2 .................................................................................................................................................................................................12
Fig. 12 Stamp 3 .................................................................................................................................................................................................12
Fig. 13 In Magna Hermopolis in Egypt (Al-Ashmunein), a wine-making scene on the tomb of Petosiris dating back to the 4th
century BC. . ........................................................................................................................................................................................13
Fig. 14 Changes in form of Archaic Period Ionian Amphorae ..................................................................................................................14
Fig. 15 Cilicia Type 1 (Zemer 41) amphora and ceramic stopper from Side Aktaş shipwreck ...........................................................16
Fig. 16a The ceramic amphora bases from Side Aktas wreck .....................................................................................................................17
Fig. 16b The ceramic amphora bases from Silifke Susanoğlu wreck .........................................................................................................17
Fig. 17 5th-6th centuries Cilicia Type 6b (LR1b) amphorae and ceramic bases found in Mersin-Elaiussa Sebaste. .......................18
Map 1 Amphorae thought to be produced on the Lycian, Pamphylian and Cilician coasts and known amphora production
centres ...................................................................................................................................................................................................20
Fig. 18 The remnants from a ceramic kiln dump in the Side-Aktaş region ............................................................................................21
Fig. 19 Amorphous ceramic remnants found close to the entrance of Köprüçay (Eurymedon) near Aspendos. . ..........................21
Fig. 20 Typological features of Cilicia Type VI (LR1) amphorae and developments of form...............................................................23
Map 2 The regions of the amphora shipwrecks which are the subject of the book. ...........................................................................26
Fig. 21 The amphora wrecks found between the years 2011 and 2015 in Lycia, Pamphylia and Rough Cilicia coasts. ..................30
Fig. 22 Two different aspects of Kaputaş 2 shipwreck, located between Kaş and Kalkan, at a depth of 12-26 meters and dating to
the 8th-9th centuries, loaded with Byzantine amphorae ...........................................................................................................30
Regions and cities mentioned in the book ..................................................................................................................................................188
iii
iv
Preface
Amphorae trade, from 2000 BC up to AD 2000, came into prominence as the main element of the sea trade in the
oceans surrounding Asia, Africa and Europe, as well as in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, which are the
inner seas of these three continents. These amphorae, which we will discuss in detail, were used for the purpose
of carrying, storing or fermenting many goods, and each one is a treasure trove of information for the ancient era
to be understood better. Because the amphorae were purposely designed to be carried more easily and safely by
ship, the production centres were usually sited in coastal regions. The convenience of transporting large amounts
of cargo by sea lanes has been known for at least 5,000 years. The amphorae seen in the areas away from the sea
were conveyed by river transportation or by road. Whether travelling by sea, rıver or lake, fortune did not always
smile on seafarers, so there are shipwrecks which carried amphorae not only at the bottom of the seas, but also
in lakes and rivers. No matter the bad results, sadness and disappointments that maritime accidents in the past
caused, they are the source of happiness, albeit bitter, for the researchers who find them today. A recently-found
shipwreck is a new book whose cover has not yet been opened. Before opening the cover of this book, it is necessary
not to forget the labourer carrying clay to the atelier, the master shaping the amphora, the person in charge waiting
by the kiln for the amphora to be fired, all the people contributing their efforts to that product; then the porter
loading the ship, the seafarer hoisting the sail, the helmsman turning the wheel, the captain watching the horizon,
the trader investing in that voyage - the love, hopes and dreams of all these people went down along with the ship.
After opening the cover of the book and flicking their flippers for the first time in the shipwreck, a series of studies
is awaiting underwater archaeologists. These are the studies like identifying the places the ship was coming from,
stopping at and going to, and understanding the cargo and dating it. To this end, the area of the ship’s spread is
determined, the quality and quantity of the load is understood, the drawing is made, 3D pictures are obtained by
using Photoscan and similar programmes, the anchors are found, and they are compared with the other materials
in context. All of these are the standard procedures in underwater research. For scientifically important shipwrecks,
excavations can be started with the permission of related authorities. Of course, not every existing shipwreck needs
excavation. An excavation can be started on a shipwreck which will be able to fill a gap in our scientific knowledge
or which is assessed to be a security risk. When the results are evaluated as whole, new answers to the ancient era
can be found, but perhaps new questions will arise.
For each stage of this book’s preparation, my student archaeologist Mehmet Oral and Selçuk University Underwater
Research and Application Centre Assistant Archaeologist Günay Dönmez have been of great assistance. These
archaeologists will take on an important role in the future, especially regarding amphora-based underwater
archaeology studies. Preparation of amphora photographs for publication was done by Havvunur Kumru, while
3D modelling of amphorae was done by Ergün Şimşek. For working uncomplainingly night and day for months, I
would like to offer my heartfelt thanks to my colleagues for their efforts during this study. I am also indebted to
the Director of Antalya Museum, Mustafa Demirel, for his support of our work in the museum’s storage facilities.
Nor should we forget antiquities lover Aydın Aytuğ, who opened up his collection for us. For the realization of the
underwater research which is the subject of the book, Melik Ayaz, Prof. Dr Asuman Baldıran and Dr Umut Görgülü’s
warm support and presence was very valuable. Prof. Dr Ahmet Adil Tırpan, Oğuz Aydemir, Korer Özbenli, Ali Yavuz
and Hasan Gökbel - if it had not been for precious people like them, our scientific studies would not have come
to this point. These names have played a role in bringing underwater archaeological work to an important level
in Turkey. Therefore, I am most grateful to them. For her support in finding the resources in this book, I would
especially like to thank Ceyda Öztosun, who spent days in the library of Selçuk University Underwater Research and
Application Centre.
v
vi
1. Introduction Because of the rules regarding underwater research,
subjects of colour and clay in amphorae are not covered
This book was especially designed to share with the in the scope of the book. The colours which disappear
world of science the subject of amphorae which were underwater as the depth increases can be made visible
found on the Mediterranean coast of Turkey. To this with light and filters during a photo shoot, but the
end, both shipwrecks found in underwater research, as amount of light and/or the type of filter used may
well as the ones located in the region’s largest museum, cause incorrect reflection of the original colour of the
Antalya Museum, constitute the sections of the book. To amphora. Moreover, the salt and limestone structure in
widen the scope of the book, the Aydın Aytuğ collection, the marine environment forms shells on amphorae and
which consists of amphorae collected in the region, is some creatures form living ecosystems. Consequently,
also included. Mediterranean amphorae which have not the observation of the real colour of the amphora clay
been found through the excavations and underwater is mostly impossible. Research permits do not allow
research done by our team up to now, are also included the removal of submerged examples. This means that
in another section of this book. Before all these sections taking an example or examining it by removing it from
there is also another section for the readers who the water and putting it back in its place is not possible
would have limited knowledge about amphorae. In this under current regulations. Due to this, it is not possible
section, which is at the beginning of the book, general to compare underwater examples with the amphorae
information is given about amphorae, starting from in Antalya Museum or in the Aydın Aytuğ Collection.
the earliest ceramic production in the world. Contents Another present day issue in this regard, still awaiting a
carried inside amphorae, amphora kilns and amphora solution, is the colour problems encountered in digital
production in the region are discussed in detail, therefore print work: colour calibration problems in the working
this book may be of some use for understanding screens; switching between programs; the differences
common forms of amphorae that may be encountered between working formats; printing machine settings;
in the Mediterranean. From the 19th century, when standard capture difficulties used in the paints; colour
amphorae began to be studied, until today, some very separation issues; colour tone differences between the
valuable publications, scientific articles and books have Munsell colour catalogue and the catalogues used in
been prepared on this topic. Recent excavations and printing; colour loss in colour catalogues over time due
research have led to the obtaining of new information, to oxidation. Because of all the aforementioned reasons,
which results necessitated re-evaluation in this area. It colour and clay details of amphorae are excluded from
is difficult to reach conclusions that can be considered the scope of the book.
‘definitive’ in archaeology. Accordingly, as with all
archaeological publications, this book also does not 2. What is Amphora?
claim to be 100% correct.
Amphorae can be defined as ‘double-handled
The amphorae and amphora-laden shipwrecks that earthenware jugs’. In the ancient world they were
are the subject of this book are related to studies generally terracotta pots used for the transportation
carried out between 2011 and 2015. These studies were of liquid or semi-liquid products (Whitbread, 1995:1),
conducted in Antalya province in Lycia, Pamphylia and storage and, sometimes, fermentation of these
Rough West Cilicia regions, and off the coast of Silifke, products. The earliest similar word to Amphora used by
which is a part of Rough East Cilicia. All the shipwrecks Achaenas in 2000 BC is seen in the ideogram ‘a-pi-po-
on the aforementioned coastline should not be thought re-we’, which is on Linear B written clay tablets. (Şenol,
to be included in this book. Depths which are shallower 2009: 7). This has been transcribed as amphoreus or
than 60 metres can be reached by scuba diving. Even amphiphoreus (Alpözen et al, 1995: 13). Correspondingly,
if different gases are used to dive deeper it is risky for this name is the combination of the Greek words amphi
the safety of the diver. According to general diving (both sides) and phoreus (bearer). Amphora production
regulations, going below a depth of 30 meters has is an important stage in the process of transformation
drawbacks - many training charts do not recommend of terracotta clay into ceramics. The name ‘ceramic’
going below 40 meters in amateur dives. Although comes from the word keramos, which means ‘clay,
scientific dives are not in the amateur diving class, also potter’s soil or container made of soil, ’ (Tekin, 2005:
consider that the time and energy which could have 183; Yalçın and Özfırat, 2006: 543).
been spent reaching those depths was instead spent
scanning a much wider area in shallower waters. In These ceramic products, defined as commercial
this way, the risks of scuba diving were also reduced. amphorae designed to be used in commercial
Deeper dives were done via point diving by underwater transportation, are one of the most remarkable
archaeologists only in circumstances where there was issues of underwater archaeology. That is natural.
clear information. Given this, the wrecks discussed These emerged in hundreds of different forms, both
within this book are generally at shallower depths than in the wrecks off the coastline of our country, and in
40 meters. the ancient ports as well as in the ancient cities. The
1
Amphorae in the Eastern Mediterranean
exchange of ceramic products clearly reveals the clay pot found in Tell Mureybet on the coast of the
trade and the cultural relations in the world of the Euphrates in Syria dates back to 8000-7600 BC (Tekin,
Aegean, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, in which 2005: 183). Such products indicate that rare terracotta
we know that the sea routes were widely used. This products could have existed between 9000-7000 BC. The
change in ceramic products is an important indicator transition to the production of pottery, with widespread
for understanding the political and commercial evidence in Eastern and South-eastern Anatolia, in 7200-
relationships between cultures and geographies. For 7000 BC, started in northern Syria and Palestine (Yalçın
example, according to the density of ceramic finds, and Özfırat, 2006: 543), and, in this period, the clay
trade relations between the Mediterranean and the shaped by hand was fired on an open-hearth (Köroğlu
Black Sea during the Roman imperial period decreased and Konyar, 2007: 20). In Eastern Anatolia, in the
compared to the Late Classical and Hellenistic periods. Birecik district of Şanlıurfa, there are widespread and
Lund, 2007: 190). The underwater excavations and varied examples of the early and late phases of ceramic
research done on the Crimean coasts in the northern production at 7 centres which date back to the Neolithic
Black Sea, shows the rising momentum in the trade Pottery era (7000-5400 BC) (Özdoğan and Karul, 2002:
made with the eastern Mediterranean coast, especially 15). In the same area, in the excavations on the side of
in the 6th to 5th centuries BC (Zelenko, 2008: 117-121). Diyarbakır Salat Mosque, a variety of examples of well-
fired terracotta pottery, terracotta perforated discs,
With their typological characteristics, what they carry, beads and figurines dating to the second and third
and the seals and the clay analysis, the amphorae quarters of 7000 BC were unearthed (Miyake et al, 2013:
which allow us access to the information about the 42, 46, 47). In Central Anatolia, in the Neolithic Pottery
dates and the places of production are among the settlement of Çatalhöyük in Konya, thick-edged, shallow,
earliest topics studied in archaeology. Heinrich Dressel plant matter terracotta pots (Yalman, 2006: 37), stamp
made the first studies related to the classification of seals made of clay dating back from 8000 BC to the end
amphorae in the 1870s and, in 1899, published Corpus of 5000 BC (Türkcan, 2006: 45), clay animal figurines and
Inscriptionum Latinarum (Dressel, 1899) about amphorae, toys (Moses, 2006: 180), demonstrate the unique ceramic
most of which date back to the Roman period. There art of the early examples. As in Eastern and Central
were a limited number of excavations carried out in Anatolia, in the west, in the Aegean region of the Upper
that period. Because of this, only a small number of Menderes Basin-Pınar Höyük, ceramic products were
amphorae could be known and dated. The adaptation also found dating from 6500-5000 BC, the period of the
of modern technology in archaeology heralded the Neolithic-Early Chalcolithic (Abay, 2011: 14).
use of these new opportunities in excavations and
research and a greater number of scientific studies, As in Western and Central Anatolia, like Eastern
thereby increasing the knowns about amphorae with Anatolia, there are many excavations such as Salattep
each passing day. However, there are still many things and Hirbemerdon Tepe in Diyarbakir-Bismil, Sumaki
unknown. The places of production, counterfeit Höyük in Batman-Beşiri, Türbe Höyük in Siirt, indicating
production, production chronology, progression in that ceramic production started in the Neolithic period
forms, the variants, what they carried, the ways of and continued almost uninterrupted until the Ottoman
use in trade relations, the stamps, the classifications, period (Ökse and Görmüş, 2013: 164-175; Laneri, 2013:
distribution areas, clay and sediment analyses and many 238-243; Özdoğan, 2013: 84-85; Sağlamtimur, 2013: 136-
more details, leads to the emergence of the unknown 141). In the early stages, the pottery types showing
as well as known. As we receive more information, the regional characteristic were produced in a similar form
questions that arise have created a special expertise field in the regions where close relationships are seen with
within archeology. This expertise, called ‘amphorology’ the development of trade (Köroğlu and Konyar, 2007:
has been used as a general definition for the continuous 20). Dating back to the Chalcolithic (5000-3000 BC) and
process of large-scale studies carried out on amphorae the Bronze Age (3000- 1200 BC), terracotta goddess idols
so far (Bresson, 2015: 126). and figurines, and dating back to the Early Bronze Age
(3000- 2500 BC) single, double and four-handled jugs
3. The Entrance of Terracotta in People’s
and containers for everyday use are common in many
Lives
archaeological sites of Anatolia (Köroğlu and Konyar,
2007: 32-96).
The production of terracotta pottery, which is considered
the first step of amphorae, was first associated with 11,000 years of adventure of terracotta in human life
agriculture and animal husbandry in the Neolithic continued after death for people in some millennia. In
period of Anatolia and Mesopotamia. It is claimed that the Bronze and Iron Ages, in many parts of Anatolia,
the remnants of some ceramic ware found in Zawi Chemi ceramic graves emerged in different forms. In the
(Kirkuk) in northern Iraq belongs to the beginning of Central Anatolian city of Çorum, comprehensive
9000 BC, while some pottery sherds found in Beldibi, information on this subject is available at the
Antalya, belong to the years 8500-8000 BC. The 5 piece excavations of Resuloğlu Village, which dates back to
2
