Alternative Fuels: The Future of Hydrogen, Third Edition

311 Pages·2012·1.32 MB·English

by  Michael Frank Hordeski

AlternAtive Fuels—
the Future oF hydrogen
third edition

A F —
lternAtive uels
t F h
he uture oF ydrogen
third edition
By MichAel FrAnk hordeski
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Hordeski, Michael F.
Alternative fuels : the future of hydrogen / by Michael Frank Hordeski. --
Third edition.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-4665-8024-4 (Taylor & Francis distribution : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-88173-687-2 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-88173-688-0 (electronic)
1. Hydrogen as fuel. 2. Fuel switching. 3. Hydrogen cars. 4. Automobile
industry and trade--Forecasting. I. Title.
TP359.H8H67 2012
333.79’4--dc23
2012038738
Alternative fuels : the future of hydrogen--third edition / by Michael Frank Hordeski
©2013 by The Fairmont Press, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publisher.
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Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
10: 0-88173-687-2 (The Fairmont Press, Inc.)
13: 978-1-4665-8024-4 (Taylor & Francis Ltd.)
While every effort is made to provide dependable information, the publisher, authors, and
editors cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissions.
t c
ABle oF ontents
Preface .............................................................................................................vii
Chapter 1 The New Fuel Mix ......................................................................1
Chapter 2 The Oil Economy ......................................................................25
Chapter 3 The Auto Revolution ................................................................59
Chapter 4 Fuels for the Auto .....................................................................91
Chapter 5 The Future of Transportation ................................................121
Chapter 6 Fuels and the Environment ...................................................145
Chapter 7 The Hydrogen Economy .......................................................283
Chapter 8 Solar Hydrogen .......................................................................207
Chapter 9 Nuclear Hydrogen ..................................................................227
Chapter 10 Biomass Sources ......................................................................247
Chapter 11 Renewable Futures .................................................................261
Chapter 12 Alternative Fuel Paths ...........................................................277
Index ..............................................................................................................298
v

P
reFAce
Some predict oil prices at $150 a barrel, due to soaring world de-
mand and destabilizing foreign conditions and rocketing energy regu-
lations. While new petroleum sources become feasible to extract and
renewable sources become more economical, political and environmen-
tal concerns clash, preventing a path to our energy future. Climate de-
stabilizing carbon emissions push the future towards more renewables,
but new petroleum finds attract energy investments of over $500 billion/
year for drilling. Has the energy world lost its bearings? Not since the
energy shocks of the 1970s has the availability and source of energy be-
come so important.
One survey indicated Americans believe energy security should be
a top priority of U.S. energy policy, with wide support for a moon shot
type of effort to develop a hydrogen economy. The dependence of the
U.S. on oil creates a national security vulnerability that could result in
widespread economic problems and increased global instabilities.
Many factors affect our energy use, one of the most important of
which is the availability of fuels. Mineral fuels can be divided into three
types: solid, liquid and gas. In the first group are the coals. In the second
group are the petroleum products, which are rich in both carbon and
hydrogen. These products provide a large range of fuels and lubricants.
In the third group are the natural gases from petroleum deposits, the bu-
tane gases and coal and coke gas. Liquids include gasolines, or petrols.
Their physical state allows them to be used directly in spark-ignition
engines.
The two principal combustible elements common in coal and
petroleum are carbon and hydrogen. Of the two, hydrogen is more ef-
ficient. The value of a fuel depends mainly in its calorific value. Pure
carbon has a calorific value of 14,137 Btus, while hydrogen has a value of
61,493 Btus. The higher the proportion of hydrogen a fuel contains, the
more energy it will provide. The hydrogen content of liquid and gaseous
fuels ranges from 10% to 50% by weight. They provide far more heat
than solid fuels, which range from 5% to 12% by weight. The less oxygen
in the fuel, the more easily the hydrogen and carbon will burn; that is,
the lower the oxygen content of a fuel, the better it will burn. The ideal
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fuel would be pure hydrogen.
Other factors used in assessing the merits of different fuels include
moisture content, extraction, storage, and transportation. Most fuels
come directly or indirectly from carbohydrates—vegetable matter which
results from photosynthesis occurring in green plants. The energy in
these fuels is due to the sun. When burning fuels are extracted from liv-
ing plants, we are recovering recent solar energy. When burning coal or
gas, we are tapping ancient solar energy.
Hydrogen is the most abundant element on the planet, but it can-
not be harvested directly. It must be extracted from another material. A
wide variety of materials contain hydrogen, which is one reason it has
attracted widespread support.
Environmentalists envision an energy economy where hydrogen
comes from water and the energy used to accomplish this comes from
wind. The nuclear industry sees a water based hydrogen economy, but
with nuclear as the power source that electrolyzes water. Nucleonics Week
views nuclear power as the only way to produce hydrogen on a large
scale without adding to greenhouse gas emissions.
In the fossil fuel industry, hydrocarbons are seen as providing most
of our future hydrogen. They already have a head start since almost 50%
of the world’s commercial hydrogen now comes from natural gas and
another 20% is derived from coal.
The automobile and oil companies are betting that petroleum will
be the hydrogen source of the future. It was General Motors that coined
the phrase “hydrogen economy.”
A hydrogen economy will not be a renewable energy economy. For
the next 20-50 years, hydrogen will overwhelmingly be derived from
fossil fuels or with nuclear energy.
It has taken more than 30 years for the renewable energy industry
to capture 1% of the transportation fuel market (ethanol) and 2% of the
electricity market (wind, solar, biomass).
A hydrogen economy will require the expenditure of hundreds of
billions of dollars to build an entirely new energy infrastructure (pipe-
lines, fueling stations, automobile engines). This will come from public
and private money.
Making hydrogen takes energy. We may use a fuel that could be
used directly to provide electricity, or mechanical power or heat to in-
stead make hydrogen, which then can be used to make electricity.
We can run vehicles on natural gas or generate electricity using
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natural gas now. Converting natural gas into hydrogen and then hydro-
gen into electricity increases the amount of greenhouse gases emitted.
Hydrogen is the lightest element, being about eight times lighter
than methane. Compacting it for storage or transport is expensive and
energy intensive.
Another rationale for making hydrogen is that it is a way to store
energy. That could be of benefit in that renewable energy sources such as
wind and sunlight cannot generate energy on demand. Many see hybrid
vehicles as a bridge to a new type of transportation. Toyota and Honda
have been selling tens of thousands of cars that have small gas engines
and batteries; American automobile companies are following their lead.
Toyota, Honda, and others are also looking in the future to substitute a
hydrogen fuel cell for the gasoline engine. That work will continue.
Some believe that the hydrogen economy has serious, perhaps fatal
shortcomings, while others consider it the path to a future of relative
energy independence.
Topics of interest include energy policy, fuel supply trends, statis-
tics and projections, oil reserves, alternative fuel scenarios, fuel utiliza-
tion, sustainable energy paths, cost analysis, fuels, and development
and regulatory issues. An energy evolution is taking place and will be
pushed by concern for the environment, economics, and power genera-
tion needs. Fuel cell/electric vehicles will ultimately provide our power
and transportation future.
Chapter 1 is an overview of the barriers to implementation. It
introduces the various technology and air emission issues, safety, and
alternatives such as natural gas, hydrogen gas, methanol, ethanol, and
fuel cells.
Chapter 2 investigates the evolution of oil supplies; coke and gas
fuels; city gas; natural gas; petroleum and sulphur sources; and crude oil
prices, refining, and distribution.
Fuels and autos are topics of Chapter three. It includes the auto fu-
ture, electric cars, revivals, the auto industry, car designs, and the impact
of mass production.
Chapter 4 investigates the impact of auto technology. It considers
fuel cell/electric cars, fuel cell cabs, the fuel cell future, and recent ad-
vances in fuel cell auto technology.
The new transportation is the theme of Chapter 5. Fueling stations
are important for any alternative fuel, especially hydrogen. Fuel cell ad-
vances will also pace hydrogen cars as well as the level of government
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support. An interesting concept for hydrogen cars is their proposed use
as mobile utilities.
Chapter 6 outlines environmental trends and concerns. This in-
cludes Kyoto and global warming, temperature cycles, deforestation,
and the greenhouse effect.
Chapter 7 is concerned with hydrogen’s characteristics, production
issues, and storage choices. Hydride storage is considered, as well as
liquid fuel and safety issues.
Solar sources of hydrogen are the subject of chapter eight. Photo-
catalytic and photovoltaic materials are discussed, along with solar heat-
ing and boilers. Solar power satellites promise to provide cheap clean
power for hydrogen, provided the economic and engineering problems
can be solved.
Chapter 9 is concerned with a nuclear future for producing hy-
drogen. Small modular reactors are considered, as well as fission and
breeder power. Safety concerns are reviewed, along with market factors.
Biomass is considered as a source of hydrogen fuel in Chapter 10.
Various biomass crops are discussed, along with waste products and
gasification and liquefaction processes.
Future trends for renewable energy sources are covered in Chapter
11. This includes solar growth, renewable initiatives, net metering, bio-
mass, and wave energy.
Alternative energy programs are the theme of Chapter 12. This in-
cludes growth, research, and initiative trends.
Many thanks to Dee, who did much to organize the text and get
this book in its final shape.
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